(lihe  i.  in.  Bill  ICtbrara 


3fartl(  ffiarulina  Statt  MmofrHitg 


/ 


"t— —  ■'   ■  ■■  ■ 

(         '^^ 


Bu. 


-U„_ 


A      FAT      OX. 

The  Lotidon  cutting  Names;  and  Proportioned  Prices  of  the 
Pieces;  according  to  Mr.  Campbell  in  17  Annal. 


No.                             SUrllng. 

d. 

f.  m.  1 

1.   Sirloin, 

5i 

lO-Z 

2.  Rur,ip, 

ii 

lo-a 

3.  Etch  Bone, 

4 

7-4 

4.  Buttork, 

4i 

8-3 

4*.  Mouft   Buttock. 

3 

5-3 

5.  Veiny  Piece, 

4 

/•4 

6.  Thick  flank,  part  grow-' 

) 

ing  under  the  fat  of  the 

■4 

7*4 

buttock, 

\ 

.7.  Thin  Flank, 

4 

7-4 

8.  Leg, 

l| 

a-6 

9.  Pieces  in  hind  quarter, 

No.  Stirling-^ 

9.  Fore  Rib,  containing  j?*f, 

10.  Middle  Rib,  contg.  four^ 

11.  Chuck,  containing /irr.r, 
la.  Shoulder,  or  leg  of  mut-T 

ton  piece  growing  on  the  > 
chuck  &.  p:j:t  of  the  briiket  j 

13.  Brifket, 

14.  Clod, 

15.  Sticking  piece  (neck)T 
part  growing  under  part  S- 
of   the  clod,  J 

1 6.  Shin, 

—  > 

8.  Pieces,  in  fore  quarter. 


f.  IK. 

lo-a 
8-3 
6-5 

7-4 
J -3 

3-7 
2-6 


The  whole  beef  cuts  into  34  pieces :  the  head  tongue  and  feet  omitted. 

On  application  by  Mr.  Cam^bd  to  the  principal  gentlemen  of  the  trade, 
jn  the  belt  markets  of  London,  he  was  enabled  to  fend  to  Mr.  Tcvng,  a  rough 
outline  fketch  of  a  good  ox,  with  the  names  and  propcnicnste  prices  of  all 
the  pieces.  lie  could  not  defcribe  the  pieces  by  the  lines  better  than  on  the 
drawing,  as  fonie  pieces  grow  under  or  partly  under  other  pieces.  This  is 
copied  from  Mr.  Campbei's ;  tut  the  oft  horn  ftands  rather  too  diltant  at  the 
root,  frcm  the  ne"  hurn— too  much  behind  it ;  and  the  legs  are  rather  too 
Icnj:. 


HUSBANDRY 


AND 


RURAL  AFFAIRS. 


By    J.  B.  BORDLEY. 


Still  let  me  Country  Culture  fcan  : 
My  Farm's  my  Home  :  "  My  Brother,  Man  : 
"  And  God  is  evciy  where." 


The  second  edition  with  ADDITIONS. 

PHILADELPHIA: 

PRINTED    Br     BUDD    yl X D    BARTRA\f, 

FOR   THOMAS   DOBSON,    AT   THE   STONE   HOUSE, 

NO-   41,    SOUTH    SECOND    STREET.  •^" 


180I. 

\X:opy-Right  Secured  according  to  La-j,:^ 


V 


-^ 


PREFACE. 


X  HE  writings  of  the  refpedable  Mr. 
TuLL  firfl  excited  the  author's  atten- 
tion to  agriculture:  but,  to  Mr.  Young 
he  is  chiefly  indebted  for  his  knowledge  of 
its  prefent  flate  and  the  modes  of  pradiice 
in  Europe.*  It  was  a  happy  firft  thought 
which  led  Mr.  Young  to  make  his  farm- 
ing-tours, for  colleding  faEis  of  the  then 
exifting  flate  of  hufbandry  in  England  :  the 
reft  followed  ;  and  the  world  has  the  fruits 
of  his  labours,  his  ingenuity,  and  his  pub- 
lic fpirit. 

On 

36265 


IV 


PREFACE. 


On  the  turn  of  middle  age  and  whilft 
gradually  quitting  public  employments,  the 
author  fat  down  on  a  farm  in  Maryland, 
and  became  enthufiaftically  fond  of  huf- 
bandry.  Farmers  in  the  neighborhood 
informed  him  of  their  modes  of  prad:ice ; 
but  they  taught  him  nothing  of  the  princi- 
ples of  the  art.  Whilft  they  knew  how 
to  pradlife  in  the  manner  common  to 
the  country,  he  knew  neither  principles 
nor  practice  ;  but  began  however  with 
obferving  their  practices,  which  he  con- 
tinued to  imitate  ;  until  gaining  infornia- 
tion  from  a  number  of  inftru(5tive  expe- 
riments, he  was  encouraged  to  deviate 
from  fome  of  them  ;  and  became  more 
and  more  affured  that  great  improvements 
might  be  made  by  profefTed  farmers,  in 
this  firft  of  all  employments,  if  they  could 
be  brought  to  relinquilh  the  worft  of  their 
habits. 


It  was  hoped  the  Society  of  Agriculture 
in  Philadelphia  would  have  induced  farm- 
ers, in  Pennfylvania  at  leaft,  to  feek  im- 
provement 


PREFACE. 


provement  in  better  pradices.  Succ'efs 
was  chiefly  looked  for  from  perfons  who 
becoming  farmers  had  been  of  other  pro- 
felTions  (foldiers,  failors,  &c.)  and  were 
never  trained  to  follow  mere  habits,  un- 
examined ;  and  moreover  whofe  fupport 
fhould  not  altogether  depend  on  the  pro- 
duce of  their  farms  ;  but  who  with  minds 
unfhackled,  would  pradife  upon  well  di- 
gefted  and  approved  principles  tefted  by 
experiments. 

Little  effays  have  been  occafionaily  writ- 
ten and  difperfed  amongfl:  his  friends ; 
which,  with  others  hitherto  remaining  in 
manufcript  pertaining  alfo  to  the  concerns 
of  hufbandmen  and  country  affairs,  com- 
pofe  the  prefent  work.  If  fortunately  they 
Ihall  induce  improvements  and  better  atten- 
tions, for  afluring  competency  with  do- 
meftic  and  focial  comforts,  his  firfl  wifh 
will  be  accomplilhed. 

PREFACE 


PREFACE 

To  the  Second  Edition. 


T 


H  E  former  edition  of  the  EiTays  and 
Notes  on  Hufbandry  and  Rural  A5airs  being 
difpofed  of,  and  a  new  edition  called  for,  and 
the  Editor  having  received  from  the  Author 
conliderable  additions,  the  contents  of  many 
pages,  upwards  of  eighty,  which  are  chiefly  dif- 
perfed  in  the  work  as  is  mofl  fuitable  to  the 
refpe£l;ive  fubjefts,  this  fecond  edition  is  now 
offered  to  the  public,  embelliihed  with  two 
additional  copperplates :  but,  that  the  price 
might  not  be  increafed,  the  work  is  printed  on 
a  fmaller  type  than  the  former. 

The  frontispiece  to  the  prefent  edition,  will 
be  particularly  valuable  to  country  families, 
in  the  copy  of  a  drawing,  given  of  a  fat  ox, 
by  the  attentive  Mr.  Campbell,  with  mai-ks 
pointing  out  from  the  London  practice,  the 
method  of  cutting  up  a  beef  to  the  beft  ad- 
vantage ;  alio  with  the  names  and  proportion- 
ate prices  of  the  pieces,  from  the  firloin  to  the 

hock a    portion  of   information   which   is 

greatly  delired  in  the  country.   See  the  ij  An. 

CONTENTS. 


CONTENTS. 


Page. 

I.  SrSTEMS  and  Rotations  r 

II.  Grdfs-rotations  2 

III.  Grain-rotations  jy 

IV.  Defignfor  a  Grain  Farm  40 

V.  Grain  and  Meadow-rotation  56 

VI.  F arm-Tar d  74 
VIL  Clover  85 

VIII.  Wheat  on  Clover  02 

IX.  Bea7is  go 

X.  Maize  and  Wheat-culture  100 

XI.  Hemp  108 

XII.  Farm-yard  Manure  118 

XIII.  Barns 

XIV.  Cattle  Stalls 

XV.  Cattle  Pastured  and  Soiled;  Kept 

and  Fattened  141 

XVI.  Obfervations   on   Cattle,   Sheep, 

and  Hogs  i5i 

XVII.  Maize  and  Potatoes  as  Fallow- 
Crops  and  Fattening  Materials  1 89 


134 
139 


Vlll  CONTENTS. 


XYllL  Fences 

194 

XIX.  Treading  Wheat 

202 

XX.  Method  of  Registering  Experiments 

213 

XXI.  Principles  of  Vegetation 

223 

XXII.  Neceffaries  best  Produd;  of  Land 

244 

XXIII.  Family  Salt 

259 

XXIV.  Butter 

271 

XXV.  Rice 

275 

XXVI.  Country  Habitations  - 

279 

XXVII.  Ice-Houfes 

304 

XXVIII.  Intimations  on   ne^u  Sources   of 

Trade,  Is'c. 

3^9 

XXIX.  Potato-Spirit  a?id  Beer 

321 

XXX.  Diet  in  Rural  Economy 

330 

XX XL  Gypfum  Manure 

344 

XXXIl.  State  Society  of  J gri culture 

356 

XXXIII.  Of  the  Hujbandman*s  Choice  of  . 

Siibjecls,  between  Li-ve -Stock  and 

Grain 

369 

XXXIV.    Thoughts    en  hired  Labourers 

and  Servants^  Cottages  and  Cot  to- 

gers 

3^7 

XXXV.  Pointing  Roofs  of  Houfes 

396 

XXXVI.  Flas 

398 

XXXVII.  Sleds     Cabbage  Plants 

400 

XXXVIII.  Fat  Cattle 

401 

XXXIX.  Notes  and  Intimatio?is 

402 

ESSAYS    AND    NOTES 


O    N 


HUSBANDRY,   &c. 


"  Agriculture  is  coufeflcdly  the  moft  ufeful  of  all  the  Arts.  Bodily  health 
"  aiid  adirity  of  mind  are  eminently  promoted  by  the  Exertions  it  re- 
"  quires.  It  is  better  calculated  than  other  Occupations,  for  prcferving 
"  the  fimplicity  of  manners,  and  purity  of  morals,  which  conflitutc  the 
"  fureft  BaCs  of  a  profpcrous  TranquiUity  iji  States." 

Amdersok. 


SYSTEMS     AND     ROTATIONS    IN 
FARMING    BUSINESS. 


ARMERS  bleffed  with  dlfpofitions  to  improve 
on  what  they  know,  will  acknowledge  there  are 
great  deficiencies  in  the  modes  of  common  farming, 
for  want  efpecially  of  well  digefted  fyflematic  appli- 
cations of  labour  with  a  proper  choice  of  crops  j 
and  that,  there  are  great  irregularities  and  mifappli- 
cation  of  labour  and  attentions  in  the  pra(flices  of 
hufbandmen. 

A  It 

Library 
N.  C.  State   Collerre 


2  GRASS      ROTATIONS 

It  is  not  long  fince  wc  began  to  read  and  talk  of 
rotatic?2s  cf  crops,  without  applying  any  adequate 
meaning  to  the  expreffion.  It  feems  as  if  farmers, 
in  common,  undcrfland  little  more  by  it  than  the 
praflices  or  courfes,  irregular  and  wild  as  they  may 
be,  in  common  farming.  They  indeed  are  not  apt 
to  elevate  their  minds  to  views  of  improvement ; 
but  rather  fet  themfelves  againfl  it :  for,  improve- 
ment implies  new  labour  and  attention  ;  although  it 
may  be  in  heu  of  and  lefs  than  the  ufual  courfe  of 
labour;  and  they  cannot  give  up  their  eld  habits, 
already  and  inleniibly  acquired,  with  httle  expenfe 
of  thought. 

A  recurring  rofaticn  cf  crops  is  the  completion  of 
as  many  years  crops  of  the  famie  kinds,  in  regular 
chanees  from  field  to  field,  as  there  are  fields  culti- 
vated ;  and  which  form  a  cycle  or  round  of  fuch 
crops  as  will  recur  in  the  fam.e  order  for  ever.  But 
where,  for  inftance,  there  are  feven  fields,  if  the 
farmer  proceeds  £»n  the  defigned  fyftem  yet  flops 
fliort  of  the, feven  years,  it  is  not  a  rstaiicn,  but  is 
only  a  courfe  of  crops  for  fo  many  years  as  it  has 
been  continued ;  for  there  is  no  cycle  or  round  of 
crops  completed. 

Experience  teaches,  and  a  little  refieftion  on  view- 
ing defigns  of  fyllematic  recurring  rotations  of  crops 
and  bufinefs  aiTures  thinking   perfons,    that  well 

chol'en 


OF     CROPS     AND     BUSINESS.  j^ 

chofen  fyftematic  bufinefs  muft  have  important  ad- 
vantages  over  random  pra^ices  and  courfcs. 

GRASS    ROTATIONS. 

A  valuable  friend  of  the  focial  virtues,  the  late 
Mr.  Rigai,  a  gentleman  from  Manheim  in  Germa- 
ny, afked  me  how  he  fliould  cultivate  a  fmall  farm 
near  fo  confiderable  a  town  as  Philadelphia.  On 
v/hich  the  following  was  written  for  him ;  and  it  is 
here  inferted  entire,  becaufe  of  the  principles  and 
intimations  contained  in  it,  which  may  be  ufeful, 
as  well  as  the  fyflem  of  bufmefs  propofed. 

"  Commerce  feeds  the  paffions : 


**  Agricultars  calms  tliem." 

Intending  to  retire  from  the  buflle  of  a  town 
life,  to  a  fmall  feat,  a  few  miles  in  the  country, 
confiding  of  a  corifortable  houfe,  offices,  garden, 
and  ^6  acrco  of  arable  land  having  a  clay-loam 
rather  impoveriihed,  tut  knowing  nothing  of  huf- 
bandry  from  experience,  and  but  little  in  theory, 
I  confult  practical  farmers  j  who  allure  me  labour 
is  fcarce,  hirelings  are  with  difficulty  managed,  even 
by  experienced  hulbandmen,  and  that  many  pecu- 
liar attentions  with  much  of  complicated  work  are 
appendant  to  a  grain  farm.  In  fliort,  that  the 
mofl:  fimple,  the  m.ofl:  plealing,  and  the  mofl  ad- 
vantageous ufe  that  I  can  apply  my  land  to,  is  to 
keep  it  in  grafs. 

A  2  It 


C  GRASS      ROTATIONS 

It  is  alfo  faid  that  feme  fuch  mode  as  is  offered 
in  the  defign  below,  is  bed  adapted  to  my  talents 
and  fituation.  It  is  my  wilh,  however,  to  have  it 
approved  or  amended  by  experienced  perfons,  or 
that  a  better  be  propofed. 

DESIGN. 

No  kind  of  grain  is  to  be  cultivated.  No  horfe, 
ox,  cow  or  other  beafl  is  to  graze  on  paflure.  They 
are  to  be  kept  up  the  year  through.  There  then 
will  be  httle  need  of  divillon  fences.  Such  as  are 
on  the  place  may  be  removed,  and  the  out  fence  be 
made  perfeft.  The  fields  will  then  be  under  one 
general  incloCng  fence  ;  and  exhibit  a  beautiful  unit 
of  grafs,  unbroken  by  fences,  but  dotted  here  and 
there  with  clumps  of  trees,  and  marked  off  in  equal 
divifions  by  headlands  or  turnings,  and  cultivated  as 

below.* 

The 

*  The  trees  may  be  locuils,  fugar-maples,  black  mulber- 
ries, black-walnuts,  black-gums,  dogwoods,  faflafraffes  :  none 
whereof  materially  injure  grals  growing  under  them.  If  it 
Ihould  be  requifite  to  guard  againll  bleak  winds,  divifions 
may  be  formed  with  hedges,  or  only  trees  planted  clofe  in 
rows.  Other  trees  may  be  two  or  three  weeping-willows, 
for  their  Cngularity  ;  the  yellow  willow  for  ufe.  The  fugar- 
maple  is  a  handfome  clean  tree,  which  gives  a  deep  Ihade.  A 
grove  of  them,  two  or  three  acres,  would  give  comfortable 
fnady  walks,  and  fugar  for  family  ue  ;  the  making  whereof 
would  require  but  a  ihort  time,  and  be  an  entertaining  har- 
veft.     The  trees  30  feet  apart,  are  above  48  on  an  acre  j 


OF      CROPS      AND      BUSINESS.  5 

The  llve-ftock  may  be  two  oxen  for  a  plow,  har- 
row, roller,  and  cart,  occafionally ;  four  oxen  in 
harnefs  for  a  waggon,  the  journies  being  {hort ;  and 
two  good  cows,  belides  carriage  or  faddle  horfes.* 

Much 

which  at  a  low  reckoning  would  yield  200  tb.  of  fugar  an 
acre.  Two  acres,  yielding  400  lb.  would  pay  an  annual  rent 
of  30  or  40  Dollars  an  acre,  deducting  only  a  trifle,  not  fo 
much  for  labour  as  for  a  (hort  attention  in  the  leifure  month 
of  February.  From  feeds,  it  may  be  20  years  before  the 
trees  yield  fufficiently  of  fugar :  but  they  foon  form  a  de- 
lightful fhady  grove  ;  and  they  grow  readily  from  feeds .  In- 
ftead  of  48  trees,  there  may  be  48  clumps  of  three  or  more 
fugar  maples  in  each  clump.  Sugar  maples  growing  in 
fields,  uncrowded,  give  7  lbs  of  fugar  a  tree :  then  clumps 
of  4  trees  may  yield  24  Jt)S  a  clump ;  and  48  fuch  clumps 
maybe  reckoned  to  give  1 150  to  1300  lbs  from  an  acre. 

*  Mr.  Rigal  for  whom  this  was  written,  lately  died  in  eafy 
circumftances.  Others,  lefs  able,  may  conduft  the  bufinefs  of 
their  grafs-farms  with  fewer  cattle,  and  even  without  owning 
any,  by  occafionally  hiring  teams,  for  drawing  hay,  carrying 
out  manures,  plowing.  Sec.  But,  four  oxen,  a  waggon,  a 
plow,  a  roller  and  a  harrow,  would  pay  well  when  kept  on 
the  farm,  always  at  command.  Indeed  oxen  cannot  be  deemed 
coflly,  expenfive,  and  in  the  end  a  dead  lofs,  as  horfes  are. 


An  ox  coils           .             .             . 

40  Dollars. 

3  years  keep,  at  24         . 

72 

1  year  ditto,  and  fatting 

40 

He  gains  from  4  years  but  partial  work 

1 60 

4  years  dung  (winter  and  fummer) 

40 

fold,  for             .             ,             . 

80 

IJ2  ..  280 


6  CRASS      ROTATIONS 

Much  of  inconvenience  and  but  little  profit  would 
attend  the  making  butter  for  fale,  by  any  other 
than  a  proprietor  who  is  of  the  clafs  of  dairy  peo- 
ple. Rather  prefer  buying  butter  and  grain  want- 
ed. The  hay^  a  fimple  unit  of  attention  and  pro- 
duce, pays  for  them  to  the  befl  advantage  :  and  a 
complication  of  attentions  is  to  be  avoided. 

Some  ground  for  potatoes,  truck-patch,  and  ex- 
periments will  be  wanted  :  therefore  eight  acres  are 
referred ;  which  are  to  have  no  connection  with 
the  other  fields ;  nor  are  ever  to  grow  any  corn  or 
grain,  which  would  require  the  ihrajher  to  be  intro- 
duced. Thefe  eight  acres  may  contain  a  garden  for 
the  market,  or  for  pleafure,  according  to  the  views 
of  the  owner. 

In  the  firfl  year  plow  up  all  the  arable,  deep  as 
the  foil  will  admit  of.  Then  fow  buckwheat,  and 
plow  in  the  plants  before  they  produce  feeds.  Re- 
peat this,  for  proteding  the  fallow  from  exceflive  ex- 
halation ;  and  for  adding  a  manure  to  the  foil  as 
often  as  the  buckwheat  is  plowed  in.  On  the  fields 
A  and  B,  lay  a  quantity  of  rich  dung :  bed  done 
in  the  fall,  on  the  lafl:  turning  in  of  the  buckwheat. 
Sow  thefe  and  the  other  four  fields  with  rye,  for 
giving  hay,  AVhen,  hereafter,  clover  and  timothy 
feeds  are  fown,  rye  will  firfl  jhelter  thefe  graffes  in 
their  tender  flate,  and  then  be  cut  and  cured  into 

hay. 


OF     CROPS      AND      BUSINESS.  }) 

bay.  In  the  fecond  year,  give  dung  alfo  to  C  and 
D  fields ;  and  in  the  third  to  E  and  F  fields.  I  have 
not  indeed  ever  feen  rye-hay ;  but  have  heard  farm- 
ers fay,  it  is  good  in  quality  and  the  crop  great. 

To  dung  the  v^^holc  in  the  firfl  year  might  be  be- 
yond your  pouter,  or  be  very  inconvenient.  There- 
fore a  third  part  is  propofed  to  be  dunged  in  each 
of  three  years :  which,  however,  rather  difadvan- 
tageoufly  poftpones,  till  the  feventh  year,  the  com- 
mencement of  the  defired  courfe,  for  giving  yearly 
two  fields  of  rye-hay,  two  of  clover,  and  t%vo  of  ti- 
mothy,* 

For  effeding  rotations  of  recurring  crops,  four 
articles  of  produce,  if  all  annual,  v/ould  require 
four  fields.  If  of  three  articles  of  crop,  one  is  an- 
nual, as  in  the  fubfequent  table,  and  two  are  bieniiial^ 
then  fix  fields  are  requifite.  With  fewer  fields  the 
fyftem  would  be  defedlive,  and  the  round  of  crops 
could  not  be  continued.  For  infl:ance :  if  thefe  ar- 
ticles 

*  If  die  ground  is  already  in  good  heart,  after  plowing  in 
the  firft  fowing  of  buckwheat  for  a  manure,  in  July  you  may 
fow  buckwheat  for  a  crop,  and  clover  fted  immediately  on  it. 
Thus  in  the  very  firft  year,  a  crop  of  iuckivheat  is  gained ; 
and  in  the  fecond  year  a  crop  of  clover,  from  the  whole  48 
acres.  If  the  ground  is  fuitable  to  gypfum,  tlien  reftorc  with 
gypfum  or  limeftone  duft  as  far  as  the  dung  falls  fhort,  which 
will  greatly  reduce  the  poftponement  of  the  intended  grafs- 
crops. 


L  GRASS      ROTATIONS 

tides  annual  and  biennial,  as  above,  were  cultivat- 
ed in  only  three  fields,  in  the  feventh  and  eighth 
years  there  would  be  no  clover.  If  of  two  articles 
of  crop  one  is  annual  and  the  other  triennial^  then 
four  fields  are  requifite. 

The  firfl  fix  years  of  the  above  defign  are  rather 
preparative  to  the  intended  round  of  crops  (fee  the 
table).  It  is  the  feventh  year  which  enters  upon 
the  defigned  and  proper  recurring  rotation  of  crops, 
manuring^  and  imrk.  A  regular  fyflem  of  recurring 
crops  and  bufmefs  in  hufbandry  exifls  on  the  princi- 
ples of  the  fpiral  line,  as  well  as  of  the  circle. 
This  is  illuftrated  by  reading  the  plan  diagonally, 
-Vom  A  field  in  the  feventh  year,  downward  through 
1  field  8,  C  field  9,  &c.  to  F  field  in  the  twelfth 
ear  inclufive  ;  being  in  all  fix  fields,  and  fix  years ; 
all  whereof  direct  to  "  mow  timothy,  plow  in  timo- 
■  hy,  dung,  fow  rye.'*  The  like  of  the  other  arti- 
cles. By  wrapping  the  paper  plan  or  table  round 
a  cylinder,  the  fpiral  line  of  crops  is  clearly  under- 
ftood.  The  plan  is  alfo  advantageoufly  read  direft- 
ly  downward^  taking  any  one  field  at  a  time ;  and 
alfo  laterally  through  all  the  fields  of  either  year. 

Though  the  firfl:  fix  years,  in  the  fyfl:em  exhibit- 
ed in  the  table,  give  crops,  except  the  fixfl:  year, 
yet  they  are  not  according  to  the  defigned  variety  j 
as  they  arc  moflly  in  rye-hay,  inflead  of  two  fields 

of 


OF     CROPS      AND     BUSINESS.  9 

of  ryf,  two  of  cloicr,  and  two  of  timoihy.  Bnt 
the  proper  courfe  being  once  entered  on,  the  in- 
tended crops  will  regularly  recur  as  long  as  you 
pleafe  to  continue  it. 

Manurings  alfo  recur  in  rotation  and  fpiral  order ; 
and  being  frequent  are  applied  in  lefs  quantities  at 
a  time  than  would  be  requiiite  afi  he  ufual 
lengthy  delays  in  renewing  them :  and  ,  "apply- 
ing them  frequently  in  moderate  quantities^  -c^ .  r'.ch- 
es  nearer  to  the  economy  of  nature ;   whi^  n- 

ftantly  commits  to  the  earth  the  food  of  plan:, 
the  means  of  obtaining  that  food,  in  moderate  p. 
tions :  not  in  gluts  to  furfeit,  nor  at  diftant  inter- 
vals of  time  which  might  flarve  the  plants.* 

Not  only  the  crops  and  manurings,  but  the  plow- 
ings  and  the  work  in  general,  recur  orderly  and  of 
courfe,  without  the  hazard  of  a  wrong  bias  or  falli- 
ble reafoning  leading  you  into  error,  confuficn,  or 
ill  judged  and  irregular  practices  and  courfes.  Such 
are  important  advantages,  which  fyflematic  hufband- 
ry  has  over  random  or  common  practices. 

Your 

*  This  mediod  of  applying  manures,  gradually,  it  may  be 
expefted  will  be  effetSual,  after  being  for  fometime  repeated : 
but  it  need  not  prevent  laying  on  manures  in  full  quantities 
at  once  ^Yhere  they  can  be  obtained. 


lO  GRASS      ROTATIONS 

Your  live  jflock  will  give  the  dung  requifite,  after 
the  third  year :  and  beeves  bought  and  foiled  on 
cut  green  grafs,  will  add  to  the  dunghil. 

Rye  is  fovved  in  September  or  October.  Clover 
in  Maryland,  in  March,  by  flrewing  the  feeds  on 
the  grc'nd  which  is  already  fown  with  fraall"  corn ; 
'or  in  '  on  buckwheat,  without  any  attempt  to 
cove  ^m.  The  dikted  flate  of  the  ground,  and 
xhc  Mon  given  to  its  particles  by  the  alternate 
V  frods  and  thaws  of  March,  and  winds  or 
s  of  July,  fuffice  for  the  growing  of  the  feeds ; 

id  the  fun  is  too  feeble  to  injure  them,  fheltered 
as  they  are  by  the  buckwheat  or  other  cornplants ; 
yet  in  fome  cafes  it  may  be  well  to  run  a  light  roller 
over  it.  Some  farmers  in  Pennfylvania  of  late, 
prefer  flrewing  clover  feed  on  their  wheat  fields  in 
April.  For  the  climate  of  Maryland  about  the  20th 
of  March  feems  the  bcfl  time. 

Timothy  fown  in  the  fpring,  would  fometimes  be 
injured  by  drought  and  heat  of  the  midfuramcr 
fun,  whilfl  in  its  feeble  flate  on  the  lofs  of  its  grain- 
fhelter.  On  the  other  hand,  though  timothy  is  more 
perfect  from  being  fown  on  grain  in  autumn,  yet 
it  fometimes  overgrows  and  injures  the  crop  of 
winter  grain.  But  when  the  grain  is  fown  for  the 
purpofe  of  hny  and  Jhelter  only,  the  objection  is 
avoided:  and  autumn  is  generally  the  preferable 

feafoa 


OF      CROPS      AND      BUSINESS.  II 

fcafon  for  fowing  timothy  feed.  On  rye  being,  in 
September,  fown  and  harrowed  in,  immediately, 
before  the  foil  can  be  fettled  down  by  time  or  rain, 
flrew  the  timothy  feed  over  it ;  and  either  roll  it  in 
or  leave  it  to  the  crumbling  of  the  foil  in  its  fet- 
teling  with  the  aid  of  wind  and  rain  ;  which  in  ex- 
perience is  found  to  be  generally  fufficient. 

Clover  and  timothy  grow  admirably  well  when 
ib^vn  in  "July  on  Bucku-heat.  The  feedling  plants 
are  thus  well  fhekered  againfh  the  fcorching  fun,  and 
will  have  a  good  length  of  time  for  growing  ftrong 
for  withftanding  the  winter's  frofls. 

Two  years  are  the  moft  that  clover  ought  ever  to 
be  continued  in  the  ground.  Timothy  would  con- 
tinue good  feveral  years  longer.  But  this  is  of  no 
confideration  in  a  rotation  courfe,  which  does  not 
well  admit  of  any  grafs  or  clover  being  continued 
two  years  on  the  ground :  and  it  is  of  great  ad- 
vantage to  turn  up  the  ground,  Jhift  its  furface,  and 
bury  thefods  of  grafs.  The  expenfe  of  feed  for  re- 
newing grafs  is  thought  too  much  of  by  farmers. 
It  is  a  trifle,  when  oppofed  by  the  advantages  gain- 
ed. 

The  following  rotations  further  illuflrate  the 
aforementioned  principles  j  and  fhew  other  varieties 
of  crops. 

Clover, 


12 

GRASS      ROTATION 

S 

C.'cvtr,  with  Rye. 

TVwor^y,  with  Rye. 

Chver  and  Timofiy, 
without  fhelter. 

ifl     rRCC 

I  ft     rRTTT 

I  ft      rCTCT 

Round  4CRC 

Round  J  TRTT 

Round  J  CTCT 

of     tCCR 

of      i  TTRT 

of      i  TCTC 

Crops. 

Crops.    (,TTTR 

Crops.    (,TCTC 

rRCC 

Zd,     -JCRC 
CCCR 

rRTTT 

rCTCT 

I  TRTT 

2d.    -J  TTRT 

,'  J  CTCT 
2a.    -J  TCTC 

(_TTTR 

l^TCTC 

The  want  of  a  flieltering  crop  to  the  young  clover 
and  timothy,  in  mofl  years  might  prove  very  ma- 
teriaJ. 

In  the  inflances  where  tiinothy  is  propofed,  orchard 
grafs  may  be  fubftituted.*  In  forae  particulars  they 
have  a  fimilarity  of  chara£ler :  in  others  they  ma- 
terially differ.  Both  arc  blade  or  fpire  graffes,  tufty 
and  fibrous  rooted.  Their  principal  difference  is  in 
the  forw'ardnefs  of  their  fpring  growth,  the  time  of 
their  arrival  to  maturity,  and  their  continuance  to- 
wards winter.  Orchard  grafs  comes  early,  is  ma- 
tured foon,  and  continues  green  late  in  the  feafon ; 

jufl 


*  It  is  faid  there  is  a  grafs  called  orchard  grafs  in  Eng- 
land ;  wliich  from  the  defcription  given  me,  is  very  different 
from  the  orchard  grafs  of  America — fo  called  from  its  grovv'- 
ing  better  under  trees  than  other  grafs. 


:)F      CROPS      AND     BUSINESS,  i^ 

jufl  as  clover  does.     Timcthy  is  late  in  its  coming  in 
the  fpring,  and  late  in  ripening. 

It  is  not  uncommon  in  the  ordinary  hufbandry, 
to  fow  lots  of  ground  with  clover  and  timothy 
feeds,  mixed.  But  a  better  companion  for  clover 
is  orchard  grafs.  Yet  in  a  rotation  fyftera,  clover 
ought  not  to  admit  any  kind  of  grafs  feeds  to  be 
mixed  with  it. 

When  clover  is  grown,  it  muil  be  cut :  it  ought 
to  be  fooner  than  is  ufual.  Timothy  growing  with 
clover,  is  cut  with  it,  in  a  young  and  very  imper- 
feft  flate.  In  this  cafe  the  clover  gives  matured 
hay :  the  timothy  a  crude  food  containing  little  of 
nourifhment.  Horfes  prefer  ripe,  full-grown  timo- 
thy in  hay.  Mr.  Gettings,  of  Gunpowder  Foreft, 
Maryland,  preiTcd  with  work,  could  mow  but  a 
part  of  his  timothy  before  harveft.  He  ordered 
the  pretty  green  hay  from  this  mowing  fhould  be 
referved  for  his  favourite  horfes.  His  hoftler  in- 
formed him,  they  preferred  the  brown  hay  cut  after 
harveft  j  and  he  faw  and  was  fatisficd  of  the  hd:. 
Afterwards,  Col.  Lloyd,  of  Kent,  cut  a  part  of  his 
timothy  before  harveft,  and  the  reft  in  July  after 
harveft.  He  attended  to  the  feeding  his  horfes 
with  thefe,  in  confcquence  of  what  he  had  heard 
of  Mr.  Gettings*  experiment,  and  afiured  me  his 

horfes 


14  GRASS      ROTATIONS 

horfes  preferred  the  brownifli  matured  hay  to  what 
was  cut  before  harveft.* 


*  "  In  fome  meadows  I  faw  timothy  grafs  ftanding  very 
thick  and  high ;  and  clofe  to  it,  it  was  much  thinner.  On 
inquiry,  I  found  the  part  where  it  was  thin  had  been  mowed 
twice;  and  what  flood  thick  had  been  mowed  once  only,  and 
thai  after  wheat  harvefi.  Mowing  timotliy  only  once  in  a  fea- 
fon,  and  that  after  harvefi^  gains  almoft  as  much  as  if  twice 
mowed  (once  before  han'efl:  and  once  again  in  autumn)  :  be- 
fides,  horfes  and  cattle  will  eat  ripe  timothy  when  tliey  will  not 
look  at  the  other."  Journ.  from  Hope,  in  New-Jerfey  :  Co- 
lumb.  Mag.  Sept.  1788,  p.  502.  It  is  a  prevailing  opinion, 
that  it  is  the  moft  beneficial  to  mow  timothy  but  once  in  a 
feafon.  The  hay  of  the  fecond  cutting  is  not  confiderable  ; 
and  it  is  faid,  cfpecially  in  the  German  diftrifts,  that  a  fe- 
cond mowing  injures  the  foil  greatly.  They  think  that  die 
fine  aftermath  is  fuperior  in  value  to  tlie  hay  of  a  fecond  cut- 
ting :  moreover  a  due  ripenefs  of  the  timothy  is  more  certain- 
ly obtained  when  only  once  mowing  is  pradlifed ;  and  the 
aftermath  of  a  fecond  growth,  when  eaten  down,  leaves  the 
meadow  naked  and  unfheltered  late  in  the  feafon,  to  damage 
from  frofts  and  cutting  winds  of  the  winter.  I  have  wifhed 
to  be  well  experienced  in  ryc-grafs  ;  as  it  has  a  pretty  blade, 
is  hardy,  coming  early  in  the  fpring  and  ftanding  late  in  the 
autumn.  European  farmers  are  fond  of  it ;  and  we  ought 
to  give  it  a  fair  trial. 


Tab  L  E 


Of     CROPS     ANB     BUSINESS. 


>s 


S 

<3 


pH 


w 


u 


pq 


a 

ti 

OS 

Pi 

Di 

(={ 

pi 

e5 

12; 

Pi 

Pi 

ei 

Pi 

(< 

0 

t^ 

a 

0 

pq 


ii 

Si 


^ 

>^ 

4-1 

Pi 

> 

o. 

0 

u 

c   o 


-Op, 


i  ^ 

00       — : 

i  > 


S  > 


PQ 
•o  "^  r:   "" 


J. 

U4  Oi 


c  ?,    >- 


^p5 


^  c  ^  ^^ 
2  ^  S  fe 

(it  Ch    ii  V3 


pi.B 


^ai 


S  ^  =  S 

§   PL,  Q   C« 


°   o 


-2   3   5 

a<ft  w 


^  ^  > 

2  Q-i  CO 


PQ     • 


rC^ 


111 

<,  (x,  u> 


^   o   3   g 


to 


.  & 

p^.S 

gp^ 


So 


-  a 


u,  pi.  P 


'pq 


5  > 


|l2  S  fi  :8 


pS'.S 

1 1 


^.^  s 


20 


ov.f 
^  A  <-> 


ci  h 


^   3l  ^  CO    72 


OS 

t4 

p5 

OS 

p5 

0 

u 

t> 

0 

c4 

1^ 

E- 

Pi    c    ^ 

•  ■"  pt! 


pi  .2 

II 

§5 


SScg 


o  ^    e 


?    o    ^ 

(/>  s  o 


CJ 


o  5 

^  ^ 

<  PL,  H^  O!;  vj 


0.2 


c    _ 


.  Oi  -r 

L> 

^      ^      S 
-00 

'  CO  c« 


*  Buckwheat. 

t  Not  Ray  or  Rye  Gn^/x  ;    but  Rye  Corn ;    to  be  cut  snd 
cured  into  /:ay,  when  the  heads  are  fliooting  out  of  die  ilieath. 


i6 


(SRASS      ROTATIONS,    &C. 


o; 

O 

U 

oJ 

Eh 

!-• 

^     o               o 

cJ 

H 

H 

S 

1-    ii            p^ 

H 

H 

5 

o 

<i    pj            H 

Cl 

c4 

o 

o 

^                   H 

»! 

O 

o 

eS 

H                  Pi 

O 

t> 

oJ 

H 

1 
>4 

h 

u  . 

w 

o 

|S,. 

> 

O                 1 

O 

1     ! 

1 1  s  ^  ^ 

1 

6 

C3 

1   §  §   ^ 

^So 

s 

S  S  '►S  w  w 

§ 

S 

^SCc^ 

S 

o 

, 

^ 

u 

> 

*«     . 

> 

o  s  s  ?  ^ 

s 

.i      ^ 

C5   tj 

1 

o 

(2i 

o 

c    S    §    ^ 

-2  bJ  E 

^  1  g: 

i 

S 

,<   Pl,   »J    JJ  03 

s 

S 

^EQcg 

cSIS^, 

o 

<^ 

u 

> 

a  fe  ^ 

a; 

o 

iiri 

11  = 

> 
1 

••\ 

S  S  M   W   '^ 

s 

ISS 

2  a,  S  CO 

=g2o 

S 

Q 

i5 

c 

c 

Z:^ 

t^    , 

o 

u 

1" 

Pi 

s 

h 
o 

II  n 

> 
o 

O 

1 

o    g    S    ^    ^ 

o 

S 

s 

-*;  Ph  Q  M 

oo  S  O 

kr-I 

«3  TT  •"   o   o 

,4  m  ►^  CO    -JD 

bi 

KJ 

v^ 

;h 

isN  pq 

o 

u 

•J 

o 

iir^ 

III  II 

s 

^sc-i 

^.2 'J 

s 

2    pH    i-3    -^    CO 

s 

c      . 

1 

o 

'J 

< 

»^  (i,  fi  'O 

ftl 

>• 

o 

1 

^              OS 

p^  ^  i-(  y3  CO 

o 

>> 
p! 

H 

o 
1                           1 

J;        t- 


GRAIN 


GRAIN      ROTATIONS.-  tf 

OR  J  IN  ROTATIONS. 

If  reducing  the  cultivation  of  grafs  to  regular 

fyflematic  rotations  be  advantageous,    bow  much 

more  fo  muft  it  be  to  apply  fuch  rotations  to  the 

more   complicated  and  various  bullnefs    of  grain 

farms  ! 

Of  the  Englifli  Old  Courfes  of  Cropsi^ 

Unril  about  the  middle  of  the  i  Sdi  century,  one  of 
the  befl:  common  courfes  of  farming,  in  England, 
confilled  of  a  fallow^  which  broke  up  and  cleaned 
the  ground,  by  feveral  plowings,  but  left  the  foil 
cxpofed  to  the  fcorching  fun,  during  the  hotteft  iea- 
fon,  without  any  iliading  crop,  and  on  this  wheat 
"Was  fown  j  peas  or  beans  following  the  wheat  :  then 
barley  (or  oats  or  both)  in  fuccefTion,  on  one  moie- 
ty of  the  farm,  during  ten  to  twenty  or  more  years: 
the  other  moiety  during  that  time  being  in  common 
pallure  graffcs.*  When  a  change  was  to  be  made, 
the  moiety  in  grafs  was  plowed  and  prepared ;  and 
then  thrown  into  the  courfe  of  crops  as  above  ;  and 
that  which  had  been  in  crops,  was  fown  Vvith  mixed 
B  grafs 

*  "  In  good  land  tlie  worfe  rotation  o^ fallow — 'u)heat — le.7Hi 
(or  peas  cr  barley)  more  ufually  prevailed."  This  and  th« 
following  notes  diftinguillic-d  by  an  S.  were  writcen  with  a 
pencil,  in  tlie  margin  of  or.e  of  my  elTays,  by  an  Englilh 
fisuntry.gentkmnn. 


18  GRAIN      ROTATIONS. 

grafs  feeds  (not  clover)  to  lay  as  before  ten  or  twen- 
ty years.  The  whole  arable  or  plowable  part  of 
the  farm  thus  divided  into  moieties,  or  nearly  (o, 
was  excluiive  of  the  homeflead  and  flanding  mea- 
dow. So  that  a  farm  of  300  acres,  admitted  of 
150  acres  in  grafs,  lay,  or  old  field,  and  150  in 
crops.  Their  fields  bearing  crops  were  feldom  equal 
in  quantity  :  but  in  the  following  deCgn  they  are  fo 
confidered. 

No.     I. 

Acres. 

37  fallow,  naic'd,  yields  nothing — exhausting* 
37  wheat,  bufhels     ^^^    — exhausting 

37  peas  or  beans  555    — ameliorating 


J 


7  barley  740    — exhausting 


150  in  crops,  4  fields        1850  bufhels.f 
150  in  grafs  or  lay. 

300  acres. 

The 

•  The  richnefs  of  a  clean  foil  is  in  a  ftate  of  wade,  vihen 
expofed  to  the  exhaling  hot  fun.  But  the  Englifh  fallows  arc 
manured.  The  plowings  open  and  clean  the  foil  for  receiving 
feed  and  producing  the  crop  defired ;  though  in  left  perfec- 
tion than  vihen  the  fallow  is  protected  by  fhade  during  its 
being  plowed  or  horfehoed.  Exhaujiing  here  means  no  more 
than  tliat  the  fallow,  when  expofed  naked  to  tlie  fun,  is  rob- 
bed by  exhalation  of  a  part  of  the  nutrition  of  plants  depoCt- 

f  S:i  its  next  page  for  tbi  quarJitiet  of  the  crop. 


GRAIN-     ROTATIONS.  1^ 

The  manure  added,  ameliorates :  yet  the  fun 
iSiining  on  the  naked  foil,  in  the  hot  feafon,  is 
thought  to  exhale  much  of  the  valuable  contents  of 
the  manure,  and  of  the  ground. 

B  1  The 

ed  In  the  foil,  more  than  if  it  were  {Keltered  by  plants  groTA'- 
ing  in  rows  on  tie  fallow  :  yet  naked  fallow  is  fo  fur  advan- 
tageous Uiat  it  breaks  and  cleans  the  foil,  without  \vhich  feed 
ftrewedon  the  ground  wot" Id  yield  no  crop.  But  the  ground 
broken  and  cleaned  whilft  under  (hade,  is  ccnfiderably  de- 
fended from  the  exlialing  fun  and  wind  ;  and  is  alfo  meliorat- 
ed hj  perfpiration,  from  juicy  plants  growing  in  the  rows.  If 
what  voyagers  fay  be  true,  that  fome  dews,  particularly  in 
die  Perfian  Gulf,  are  fait,  the  fa:mer  may  readily  apprehend 
that  a  part  of  the  riches  of  Lis  foil  may  ?Mo  be  exhaled  bv 
the  fun  ;  and  he  will  refort  to  fisjhig  crops  on  his  fallow,  for 
defending  it  againft  wafte.  He  knows  the  value  of  mere 
mcljiure,  and  how  foon  it  evaporates  v^'hen  the  earth  is  expofed 
to  the  fun  and  wind  without  {heltcr.  Befides  what  I  have 
read  of  this  in  Harris's  CoUedicn  of  Voyages,  a  celebrated 
late  traveller  into  Egypt  and  Syria,  aifures  me  it  is  true  ; 
and  that  he  has  tafted  the  fait  from  dew  on  his  lips,  in  thofe 
countries.  Th.o\x^afou:ksrn  countries  are  the  be:ter  for  ihading 
fallow  crops,  yet  northern  countries  m.ay  be  better  without  the 
fliade.  In  the  high  latitudes  of  England,  fhaded  lallows  are 
contended  for  :  how  is  it  in  Scotland  or  in  Szvedcn  ? 

t  The  quantities  given,  of  the  crops,  are  not  meant  as  real 
or  even  as  eftimatcd  quantities  ;  but  are  noted  at  random, 
and  continued  at  the  fame  rates  in  fubfequent  courfes,  for 
comparing  the  grain  products  of  entire  farms,  as  they  are 
differently  divided.  All  contain  300  acres. — The  Maryland 
and  Pennfylvania  bulhel,  like  the  London  mcafure  tn  ufe ,  \s 
fomewhat  larger  than  the  EnghOi  Rututs  bufwel— about  ^V"- 


ao 


GRAIN     ROTATIONS. 


The  above   is  of  the  crops  of  one  field  during 

four  years  ;  or  of  the  four  fields  in  one  year.     The 

following  is  a  plan  of  the  whole  farm  (homeftead, 

meadow,  and  lay  excepted)  with  the  courfcs  of  the 

crops  in  thofe  four  fields  during  four  years  * 

Years.  A        B         C        Ti        ^j^j^^^ 

1791 

1792 

1793 

1794 

The  medium  produce  of  thefc  fields,  in  England, 
is  more  than  is  above  ftated.  But  it  is  well  to  fuppofe 
the  quantity  they  produce  per  acre  is  as  in  this  and 
the  following  flatements :  nor  is  it  material  what  the 
quantity  is,  when  how  much  the  Englifli  foil  or  how 
much  the  American  gives,  is  not  under  confider- 
ation. 

Englifli 

*  Four  years  crrps,  of  four  feveral  articles,  interchanged 
on  four  fclds,  complete  a  rotation  of  four  years ;  -which  if 
properly  defigned,  will  recur  as  often  as  you  pleafe  ;  and  on 
die  plan  will  read,  diagonally,  the  fame  through  every  Ro- 
tation. 


A 

B 

c 

D 

Fal. 

Wh. 

Pc. 

Ba. 

.*  W 

\    P 

B   \ 

F 

;  p 

B 

F 

w ; 

•       •         * 

;  F 

•      •        • 

•      •       • 

;  p  ; 

1  •    •  • 

GRAIN      ROTATIONS.  21 

Englijh  New  Courfes  or  Rotations  of  Crops. 

The  better  courfes  of  crops  arc  founded  on  thefe 
principles :  To  fallow^*  and  to  have  growing  on 
the  fallow,  whilfl  it  is  yet  under  the  plow  or  hoc,  a 
Jhading  and  ameliorating  or  mild  crop  :  never  to  fow 
any  fort  of  corn  immediately  after  corn  of  any  kind : 
to  fow  clover  or  an  equivalent  on  every  field  of 
fmall  grain  :  and  with  a  courfe  of  well  chofen  crops 
and  the  Jhaded  fallows,  prevent  the  foil  from  rest- 
ing^ hardening  and  running  into  weeds. 

Thus  entire  farms  are  continued  in  a  conflant  ro- 
tation under  4  to  6  or  8  divifions  or  fields ;  fo  as 
with  the  clean,  mellow  flate  of  the  whole  arable, 
to  give  a  pleafing  fyftem  of  bulinefs,  improve  the 
foil  and  procure  a  confiderably  larger  income. 

Plowing  the  fields  every  year,  bids  fair  to  annihi- 
late even  Joh?i^s-wort  and  garlick — indeed  every 
growth  but  of  the  crops  defigned.  The  rotation 
fyftem  warring  againfl:  weeds  and  all  coalefcence  or 

fettling 

*  The  intention  in  fallowing  is  to  plow  up  and  pulveri:e  the 
ground ;  fhift  its  furfaces  ;  deftroy  weeds  and  bring  up  or 
cover  feeds  to  be  fprouted  and  deftroyed.  "  ffi/li  Ihould  be 
plowed  ohliqufly  to  the  right  hand,  frcm  the  top,  down ;  by 
v/hich  the  furrow  turns  readily  :  as  it  aUb  does  when  the  plow- 
returns  obliquely  up  hill,  pcirallel  to  the  former  furrow  made 
in  going  do^v^  hill." 


52  GRAIN    ROTATIONS. 

fettling  and  binding  of  the  ground,  vzill  not  allow  the 
land  to  rest.  It  urges  you  on  to  perpetual  culture: 
but  rest,  being  a  friend  to  iveeds  and  a  hardnefs  of 
the  ground,  cannot  belong  to  culture.  There  is  a 
flron^  exprelHon  among  hufbandracn,  of  "  land 
untiuiny  itfelf."  They  apply  it  to  ground  which 
has  been  cultivated,  and  afterwards  neglected  ;  fo 
that  it  rests,  fettles,  and  returns  to  its  wonted 
hardnefs. 


No.  II. 

60  acres  barley     bufhels  1200  —  exhaufling 

60  clover         .  .  —  ameliorating 

60  wheat  .         900  —  exhaufling 

60  clover*  .  .  —  ameliorating 

6c  peas  or  beans         900  —  atnelioraling 


;oo  acres  in  5  fields. 


3000  bufhels. 


In 


*  "  I  believe  it  is  never  practifed  to  fow  clover  twice  iwjive 
^^ years.  The  ground  would  foon  be  exhaulied  of  die  pabu- 
"  lum  of  clover,  and  the  feed  would  not  vegetate.  The  rota- 
*'  tion  of  clover,  fown  cnce  'n\  four  years,  cannot  be  long  con- 
*'  tinned  without  occafionally  changing  the  clover  for  feme 
**  other  grafs,  ufually  hop-clover  or  trefoil  irJxed  w!.;h  rye- 
**  grafs.  Without  fuch  change  the  ground  becomes  fick  of 
**  clover,  and  the  clover  will  no  longer  thrive. — The  beil  ro- 
*'  taiion  on  jtrong  \.\vA  that  will  not  bear  treading  with  fheep, 
"  is  barl^ — clover — zuheat — Itaus  :  or  barley,  beans,  wheat, 
*'  clover  two  years.  In  light  land,  d;e  beft  and  almoU  univer- 
"  iA  rotation  is  karlcy — clover — nukeat — iurr.ips."  S.  The 
Hhove   is  faid  of  clover    in   England.     And  it   alfo  is  there 


GRAIN    ROTATIONS*  23 

In  their  fandy  light  lands,  turnips  in  a  well  pre- 
pared foil  are  a  common  fallow  crop,  inllead  of  peas 

or 

faid  of  their  clover,  that  It  fails  much  more  than  formerly ; 
for  that  it  comes  up  very  thick  and  fine,  but  "  dies  aivay  In 
"  winter."  2  E.  Tour  128.  And  again,  the  fame  book,  p. 
165. — "  Land  Is  tired  of  clover.  It  comes  up  thick  and  fine, 
"  but  is  all  eaten  off  in  February,  by  a  red  worm  ;  which  did 

"  not  ufe  to  happen.'* Home's  Pr.  Agr.  161,  fpeaking  of 

change  of  f pedes •,  fays, — ^  fome  plants  are  defigned  to^x  the 
"  foil ;  others,  to  open  it ;  xSx^  fihrotis  rooted  and  the  tap  rcot- 
**  ed."  So  far  at  leaft  change  of /pecks  is  advifable,  andfowing 
cornsy  which  have  fibrous  roots,  and  hgumies  01  clover,  which 
have  tap-roots,  alternately,  tend  to  efFeft  this  ameliorating 
purpofe,  and  preferve  a  due  medium  between  too  clofe  and 
too  open  a  foil.  Though  change  of  fpecies  may  be  nccefiary, 
T  do  not  believe  that  change  oifeed  of  the  fame  kind,  at  leaft 
of  wheat  or  other  common  corns  is.  I  never  could  perceive 
any  difference.  Many  Ideal  old  fayings  pafs  current  without 
examination.  What  more  current  than  that  acid  of  vitriol  is 
a  pollbn  to  foil,  or  to  vegetation  ?  yet  Doflor  Home  proved  it 
to  be  a  powerful  manure  ;  and  plafterof  Paris  is  but  a  caicari- 
ous  earth  faturated  with  acid  of  vitriol.  So  it  is  faid  of  ani- 
mals, that  it  Is  neceflliry  to  crof  the  firahu  To  be  furc  a  horfe 
of  fuperior  breed,  may  be  expected  to  give  a  better  colt  than 
your  prefent  inferior  breed.  Mr.  Bahzvell  fays,  propao-ate 
from  your  own  horfes  till  you  meet  with  better.  Certain  feeds 
of  exotic -plants,  may  be  changed  to  advantage,  yet  the  corns, 
common  to  all  the  world,  it  fcems,  require  not  a  change  of 
feed.  It  is  faid  that,  "  In  Egypt,  the  French  are  obliged  to 
*♦  import,  annually,  the  feeds  of  caulifiowers,  beets,  caiTots, 
**  and  falfify ;  and  apricots,  pears,  and  peaches,  tranfported 
"  to  Rtjelta,  degenerate."  Vol.  Syv. And  fo  itib  in  Kmt- 


'*4  GRAIN  ROTATIONS. 

or  beans ;  the  turnips  being  thinned  greatly,  and 
frequently  hand-hoed,  or  if  in  rows,  horfehoed,  fo 
as  to  keep  the  ground  clean  and  well  flirred  ;  and 
they  are  always  on  manured  ground.* 

A 

rica,  refpecling  raulif.o'X'er  feeds.  Yet  Kliyogg,  the  noted 
Bwiis  Farmer,  is  warm  lor  changing  his  feed-corn  frequently. 

*  Oar  American  farms  arc  lo  to  15  degrees  fcudi  cf  the 
farms  in  England  ;  yet  fo  keen  are  our  frofts  and  fo  fudden 
and  frequent  the  changes  from  thaw  to  froft,  that  commoa 
turnips  do  not  ftand  the  winter  through  in  our  fields.  The 
Swediih  plant,  called  ruta-Liga^  or  r:ia'baga.,  is  likely  to 
ftand  our  winters  ;  for  fupplying  cattle  and  fhcep  with  a  juicy 
food  in  winter  and  fpring, — a  fauce  to  their  dry  food,  for 
keeping  them  open  ag?,inft  the  coftive  effects  of  ftraw.  Doc- 
tor Collin,  Swedifh  Millioner  in  Philadelphia,  fays  it  is  con- 
fidered  in  S-x^den  as  a  fpecies  of  ikole  or  Colwort,  and  is  call- 
ed Rot-kol,  having  fmooth  leaves.  I  have  but  once  had  an 
opportunity  of  fovving  its  feeds  :  the  roots  irom  which  flood 
through   the  winter  peiiecHy  found,  in  the  ground.     But  it 

was  the  mild  winter  1795-6. The  common  courfe  of  crops 

in  England,  of  turnips ^  barley^  clover,  ivheat,  a  change  on  (y^- 
\j  four  fe'ds,  cf  their  light  lands,  after  t-juenty  years  tT^tr'icncCt 
is  thought  by  fome  farmers  to  furteit  the  ground,  by  the  fre- 
quency of  the  repetition  or  recurrence  of  the  fame  crops, 
Cj"  zuhsn  they  are  nuiihcut  mnnurings  :  the  fame  crops  returning 
in  the  ftiort  fpace  of  e\crj  four  years.  Here  inftead  of  allow- 
ing the  foil  to  be  impoverifhed  in  confequence  of  its  being  20 
years  under  crcps  ^ju'ithout  b/itigdunjtd,  the  mind  flies  to  fancied 
furfelts  of  the  ground.  Call  it  what  you  will,  in  half  twenty 
years  mofl  foil  will  fhew  fome  degree  cf  impoverifhment, 
from  the  crops  taken  cf  luithout  manure  given  to  the  foil.     Mr. 

Library 
N.  C.   State   College 


GRAIN  ROTATIONS. 


25 


Years. 


179: 


^7^:, 


794 


^795 


B 


D        E       Yiddi, 


Ba 

CI 

\Vh 

CI 

Pe 

.    C 

.  w 

C 

*  p 

B    ' 

•  W 

•  c 

:  p 

'    B 

G    • 

;  c 

p 

B 

C 

\  ^^ 

•  p 

•   •  •   « 

B    - 

•        •      • 

C 

w 

c  . 

I79I 


PUtf  an  excellent  farmer  in  England,  who  mentions  this  to 
Mr.  Young,  thinks  it  is  very  bad  tillage,  elpecially  on  iveak 
foils.,  unkfs  the  land  is  marled  or  twice  cj"  manured  in  the  ro- 
tation. He  adds,  that  on  breaking  up  the  turf,  fome  have 
with  fuccefs,  taken  Jpring  corn,  followed  immediately,  after 
working  the  land  well,  in  "jjhejt,  turnips,  larky  with  grafs 
feeds,  and  manuring  upon  th:  feeds  and  for  the  turnips;  which 
courfe,  he  adds,  proves  good,  and  the  crops  heavy.  The 
fuperiority  of  crops  in  this  courfe,  he  thinks,  is  caufed  by 
manuring  on  the  feeds,  and  by  a  fifth  of  the  land  laying  fivt 
years  in  grafs.  4  An.  478.  This  fuggefts  the  propriety  of  hav- 
ing, in  every  rotation  of  crops,  one  field  extraordinary  to  lay  in 
grafs,  not  clover,  till  the  courfe  ends  :  that  is,  whilft  the  four 
to  five  or  fix  fields  are  revolving  in  crrps,  one  other  field  is  to 
be  laid  dov.n  and  continued  in  grafs,  or  rather  (landing  mea- 
dow. For  inftance  :  "juhsat^  clo'B.-r,  rye,  clover.,  peas  or  beans  or 
foots,  interchange  whilfl  die  grafs-field  continues  vinb;ok;:n. 


26 


GRAIN    ROTATIONS. 


I79I 
1792 

1 793 
1794 

^19S 


Ba 


Here  the  crops  are  the  fame  as  the 
preceding — but  the  courfe  is  differ- 
ent. In  that  the  clover  is  annual : 
in  this  it  continues  two  years.  When 
clover  is  continued  tvro  or  more  years, 
it  lets  in  weeds  and  forae  binding  of 
the  ground,  to  a  degree  that  may  have 
occafioned  the  faying,  in  England,  of 
the  ground  becoming,  in  that  country, 
"  clover  fick."  But  'pearly  renewing 
the  clover  in  a  rotation  of  crops,  neither  admits  of 
iveeds  or  a  binding  of  the  ground.  The  clover  in 
this  cafe,  being  fufficiently  thick  and  well  fown,  ef- 
feclually  (liades  and  mellows  the  foil,  without  having 
time  allowed  it  or  the  foil  to  decline.* 


CI 


CI 


Wh 


Pe 


Comparifon 

during  the  five  years  crops  of  grain  and  clover.  Then  this  is 
broke  up,  and  put  into  a  courfe  of  crops,  as  the  others  :  and 
one  of  the  crop-fields  is  laid  down  in  grafs.  Accordingly  un- 
der the  article  recurring  crops,  is  a  defign  of  rotation  crops  at- 
tended vrith  a  permanent  meadozu ;  and  another  defign  of  a 
field  in  meadozv,  and  another  in  Hemp,  during  the  time  of  other 
crops  in  rotation. 

*  The  climate  and  the  foil  of  America  may  be  believed  to  dif- 
fer greatly  from  thofe  of  England,  refpefting  the  growth  and 
perfection  of  fome  particular  plants.  Wheat  fown  there  2  to 
3  bufhels  an  acre,  yields  great  crops  of  com.  Two  bufhels 
an  acre  fown  in  Maryland  or  Pennfylvania,  would  yield  ftraw 
without  grain.  In  Maryland  three  pecks  are  commonly  fown. 
I  never  had  better  crops  than  from  half  a  buftiel  of  feed  wheat 


e 


aRAIN   ROTATIONS.  2/ 

Comparifon  between  the  EngUfi  Old  ana  New  CouT' 
fes  of  Craps. 

Upon  comparing  the  old  with  the  new  courfes  iri 
England,  it  occnrs  that  the  120  acres  in  clover,  may 
be  confiderably  fuperior  to  the  1 50  acres^of  common 
grafles  on  the  hide-bound  foil  of  the  lay  or  old  field ; 
and  that  the  grain  and  ftraw  is  fuperior  as  300  to  185. 

Peas 

to  an  acre,  in  a  few  inftances.  In  diefe  inftances,  the  ground 
was  pcrfcftly  clean  and  fine,  after  many  plowings  or  hovfe- 
hoings  of  maize ;  on  v/liich  the  wheat  was  fown  in  Septem- 
ber, whilil;  the  maize  v/as  ripening.  It  was  a  clay-loam, 
highly  pulverifed.  But  becaufe  of  the  lofs  of  plants  at  other 
times,  I  preferred  to  fo">v  three  pecks  an  acre. — The  attentive 
Mr.  E.  an  excellent  farmer  of  Pennfylvania,  made  a  farming 
tour  in  England  ;  and  obferved  that  cloA'-er  there  is  inferior 
to  what  it  is  in  Pennfylvania,  This  may  be  owing,  partly,  to 
the  climate  and  foil  being  Icfs  friendly  to  this  plant  than  in 
America :  and  certainly  it  is  againft  clover  to  continue  it 
growing  for  years,  fo  that  weeds  and  fibrous  rooted  gralTes 
arc  let  in  to  rob  the  clover  and  bind  the  foil.  It  is  even  an 
Englilh  pradlice  to  fow  rye  grafs  with  clover :  and  rye  grafs 
is  a  very  fibrous  rooted  binding  plant.  The  ground  bccont- 
ing  "  clovcr-fick"  is  unknown  in  America, — unlcfs  its  being- 
reduced  by  a  long  continuance  of  the  clover  and  introduiUon 
of  v/eeds  and  graffes,  will  admit  of  the  exprellion.  But  clo- 
ver-fick  in  the  fenfc  fpoken  of  in  the  note  page  22,  is  unkno\\'n 
and  unfufpected  in  America.  Red  clover  is  only  meant. 
Ground  be'mg  clovcr-Jick  or  furfeited  with  clover,  is  atlributcJ 
by  a  Surrey  cultivator  to  fliallow  plowing.  His  land  was  firfc 
.of  clover,  baring  been  fown  every  fourih  ye.]-     '.-.'  ■  -^  '   - 


SS  GRAIN  ROTATIONS. 

Peas  and  beans  are  inofFenlive,*  as  is  clover,  and 
even  are  ameliorating.  They  all  Jhade  the  ground 
during  the  hotted  time  of  the  year.  All  corns  im- 
poverifli ;  and  withal,  the  f?nall  kinds  let  in  weeds  ; 
which  with  rest,  bind  and  foul  the  foil.  But  they 
check  the  wafliing  away  of  foil ;  which  maize  culture 
greatly  promotes,  by  repeated  plowings  or  fcratch- 
ings  given  Vv^hilft  the  maize  is  growing. 

No.  I.  has  two  fields  flirred  and  cleaned  :  the  fal- 
low, a  naked  one,  and  the  pea  or  bean  field  when 
in  rows.  The  growing  crop  of  the  laft  flickers  the 
foil  from  extreme  exhalation  j  and  is  the  only  ame- 
liorating crop  againft  the  two  exhaufting  crops, 
wheat  and  barley.  No.  II.  has  one  horfehoed  or 
plowed  field,  in  a  fallow  crop  of  peas  or  beans ; 
and  three  fields  of  ameliorating  productions,  which 
are  peas,  clover,  clover  (that  is  continued  two  years) 
•againfl  the  two  exhaufl:ers,  wheat  and  barley.  The 
field-bean  in  England,  though  fmall,  is  of  the  na- 
ture of  the  garden  or  Windfor-bean.  It  grows  up- 
right, and  giving  but  a  partial  fhade,  is  not  fully 

an 

plowing  12  inches  ^eepy  manuring  greatly,  and  then  fowing 
clover  every  third  year,  Mr.  Young  marked  the  refult  for  9 
years,  and  never  faw  finer  crops, — 2  An   366. 

*  "  Not  unlcfs  they  are  kept  clean  from  weeds  by  hoing, 
**  which  cannot  be  performed,  unlefs  tliey  arc  fown  in 
« drills."     S. 


GRAIN  ROTATIONS.  2^ 

an  ameliorating  crop,  unlefs  well  horfehoed  in  the 
intervals,  between  the  rows.*  Neither  are  turnips 
or  potatoes  good  fallow  crops  unlefs  they  are  manur- 
ed and  cultivated  in  the  like  manner.  They  there 
are  always  on  manured  ground.  Englilli  peas  fooa 
covering  the  ground,  even  when  fowed  broad-caft, 
are  good  fallow  crops,  although  not  horfehoed. 
Having  but  little  root,  moft  of  their  nourifliment, 
it  feems,  is  derived  from  the  atmofphere.  The 
plants  are  juicy  and  emit  much  perfpiration  on  the 
ground. 

American  Old  Courfes  of  Crops. 

When  in  Maryland  a  farm  is  divided  into  three 
fields,  the  common  courfe  is  maize,  wheat  or  rye, 
and  fpontaneous  rubbifh  paflure.  When  in  four 
fields,  it  is  maize,  naked  fallow,  wheat,  and  the  like 
mean  pafture  :  or  maize,  wheat,  lay  or  poor  paflure 
during  two  years.  And  whiJft  in  feme  parts  of  A- 
merica,  the  fields  are  four  or  five,  in  other  parts  the 

divifions 

*  "  Beans  are  ufually  drilled  In  rows  1 8  or  20  Inches  afun- 
••  der,  in  England,  and  kept  clean  by  haiidhoing,  m  York- 
"  fliire,  the  diftance  not  admitting  of  a  horfehoe ;  nor  did  I 
*'  ever  hear  of  one  being  ufed,  except  perhaps  In  fome  part 
«*  of  Kent,  where  beans  grow  with  an  unufual  luxuriance, 
"  and  are  confequently  fown  at  an  unurual  diftance."  S. — 
In  Maryland  I  ihimmed  (a  kind  of  horfehoing)  peas,  beans 
and  potatoes,  growing  In  rows  iS  or  20  Inrhcs  apart,  equal 
to  two  of  my  plow  furrow  5. 


30  GRAIN  ROTATIONS. 

dlvifions  are  as  low  as  two.  Two  exhaufting  corn 
crops  repeatedly  taken  from  three  or  four  fields,  af- 
ter fome  years  of  fuch  crops,  would  fcarcely  admit 
of  eight  bufliels  of  wheat  an  acre  being  produced  on 
common  land,  one  year  with  another  :*  but  fuppofc 

No.  III. 


ICO  acr.  maize,  at  12  buihels 

1200 

100         wlieat,         8 

800 

100         lay,  or  mean  paflure 

300  acres  in  3  fields 

2000  bufliels. 

No.  IV. 

']c^  acr.  maize 

75         wheat 

IS      i^y 

IS      i^y 

300  acres,  in  4  fields. 

No. 

*  A  few  years  fince,  It  was  a  general  belief  that  fix  bufliels 
of  wheat  an  acre,  was  the  medium  produce  of  a  large  extent 
of  country  within  the  peninfula  of  Chefapeak  :  but  fmce  then, 
till  the  Heflian  fly  took  poirefTzcn  of  the  wheat  growing  there, 
the  wheat  ciilture  was  improved  fo  as  to  gain  a  larger  pro- 
duce, in  that  difl:ri(ft.  I  Ciinnot  fo  well  judge  of  the  crops  in 
Pennfylvania  ;  but  believe  they  exceed  tv/elve  buihels  of  wheat 
on  an  acre,  when  clear  of  injury  from  the  Heffian  fly  j  and 
that  they  are  progrefling  with  the  Increaflng  ftate  of  clover 
and  manurings  with  dung,  gypfum  and  lime.  Here  the 
corn-ground  is  manured^   for  raaize,   Vv'heat  or  barley.      In 


GRAIN  ROTATIONS.  3I 

No.  III.  and  IV.  give  light  crops,  moftly  of  a  cheap 
corn,  very  poor  pafture,  and  but  little  hay  (if  any) 
for  keeping  a  flock  of  hide-bound  beafts  and  prefcr- 
vation  of  a  foil  which  is  in  an  obvious  confumption. 
Under  fuch  fevere  treatment,  land  is  continually  lo- 
ling  ftrength ;  and  it  may  be,  greater  productions 
arc  here  allowed  than  the  old  fettled  maize  farms 
yield,  and  than  new  ones  can  long  continue  to  yield, 
under  the  old  habits  of  farming,  if  it  may  be  called 
farming.* 

We  almofl:  univerfally  culiivatc  one  field  in  maize, 
whatever  may  be  in  the  other  fields.  The  maize 
being  frequently  plowed  or  horfehoed,t  the  ground 

is 

Maryland,  alas !  the  manuring  entire /Ms,  is  fcarcely  known 
in  any  inftance. 

*  Wliat  is  above  faid,  applies  to  Maryland  rather  than  to 
farming  in  Pennfylvania,  where  watered  or  irrigated  meadows 
have  long  been  in  common  ufe  :  and  it  is  remarkable  that  the 
irrigated  and  bottom  meadow  lands  are  now  thought  lightly 
of,  in  comparilbn  with  die  very  high  eftimation  they  were  in 
before  clover  came  into  field  culture.  Still  irrigated  grounds 
are,  as  tliey  ever  will  be,  very  valuable  :  but  fo  fure  and  plen- 
tiful are  clover  crops,  that  the  Pennfylvania  farmers  are  lefs 
fohcitous  about  meadows.  Till  lately  a  firm  without  irrigat- 
ed or  bottom  meadow,  was  never  much  valued.  Now,  pur- 
chafers  are  Icfs  anxious  for  thofc  articles,  as  they  are  fure  of 
abounding  in  clover  and  hay  from  the  arable  upland. 

f  Horfehoing,  is  (lining  and  cleaning  from,  weeds  the  in-r 
terval  ground,  with  a  plow  or  any  inftrumsnt  which  cuts. 


3^  GRAIN  ROTATIONS. 

is  thereby  kept  light  and  clean  ;  and  it  gives  a  fal* 
low  with  a  crop :  but  it  is  an  ill  chofen  crop  for  a 
fallow,  becdufe  of  its  giving  only  a  trifle  oi  Jhade 
to  the  frefh  expofed  foil,  and  becaufe  it  is  corn,  to 
be  fucceeded  commonly  by  other  corn  :  and  all  corns 
are  terrible  exhaufters.  Some  farmers  fow  wheat  on 
this  maize-field,  in  September  before  the  maize 
is  ripe,  on  a  clean,  light  foil.  Others  delay  fow- 
jng  it  till  the  enfuing  autumn,  when  the  foil  be- 
ing fomewhat  fettled  and  much  in  ftrong  weeds,  they 
plow,  harrow,  and  fow  it  with  wheat.  Of  the  two 
methods  farmers  differ  in  the  choice.  I  have  known 
fome  who  had  practifed  in  both  methods,  return  to 
the  former  ;  becaufe  the  latter  was,  as  they  judged, 
more  injurious  to  the  foil  than  the  former  method. 
But  it  is  againft  wheat  to  fow  it  on  hard  weeds  or 
flubble,  which  keep  the  ground  hollow ;  and 
though  this  may  be  favourable  to  rye,  it  is  olher- 
wife  of  ivheat, 

American  Fallow-Crops  ;  and  New  Rotations,  with 
and  without  Mdize.i 

Maize  taken  into  a  rotation  under  the  new  fyftem, 
according  to  the   newly  adopted  principles  of  huf- 

bandry, 

divides  and  bre-iks  it  by  the  prm'er  of  horfes,  at  the  fame  time 
that  a  crop  is  growing  in  rows  bc^ween  the  parts  horfehoed. 
Whilft  cur  maize  is  growing,  we  repeatedly  horfehoe  it ;  and 
fe  call  it,  "  plowing  the  corn." 

f  Thefe  methods  are  rather  propofed  than  as  yet  pradlifed 
xa  America.     But,  a  beginning  is  made.     Mr.  M'Donough 


CRAIN  ROTATIONS.  -^ 

bandry,  occafions  feme  difficulty,  which  feems  beft 
overcome  by  increafmg  the  number  of  fields.  Our 
hufbandmen  aj-e  fo  ufed  to  maize  crops,  that  fcarce- 
ly  any  appear  difpofed  to  give  up  the  culture  of  this 
corn,  for  productions  much  milder  in  their  effe<5l  on 
land.  Nor  is  it  advifable  that  they  fhould  relinquifli 
it,  unlefs  it  may  be  on  thin  foil  very  liable  to  be 
waflied  away,  and  the  land  apt  to  be  broken  into 
gutters.  Maize  is  the  beft  of  all  the  corns.  It  is 
food  for  moft  animals,  and  its  plant  yields  a  great 
increafe  of  grain.  Seafons  or  plagues  which  injure 
other  corns  do  not  alFedl  maize:  the  growing  it 
therefore  gives  many  chances  againft  want.  As  a 
food  to  man  it  is  remarkably  wholefome  and  nourifli- 
ing,  and  admits  of  the  greateft  variety  in  its  prepa- 
rations. In  cultivating  it  the  foil  is  cleaned  and 
lightened,  preparative  to  other  crops :  though  it  is 
inferior  to  preparations  with  ameliorating  crops  giv- 
ing more  lliade,  and  moifture  from  perfpiration." 

C  No. 

of  Delaware  has  praSifed  fome  kind  of  rotations  on  the  new 
principles,  with  the  moft  pleafmg  fuccefs :  and  Mr.  Pearce, 
of  Maryland,  in  leafing  out  his  fine  eftate  in  Salfafras  Neck, 
referved  1 20  acres,  which  he  cultivates  in  fix  fields,  and  gives 
his  neighbours  an  inviting  example  of  the  fupcrlorlty  of  the 
new,  over  the  0I4  modes. 


3^  cRAiN  rotations; 

No.  V. 

A  MAIZE  COURSE. 

50  acr.  maize  750 

50         wheat  or  fpring  barley  750 

50         clover 

50         rye  or  winter  barley  900 

50         clover 

50         clover,  pulfe,  or  roots 


300  acres  in  6  fields  2400  bufhels; 

It  is  a  fault  in  this  fyflem  that  wheat  fucceeds 
maize,  that  is  corn  fucceeds  corn.  Rye  or  barley 
might  have  been  in  the  place  of  wheat,  but  thefe  al- 
fo  are  corns,  which  exhaufl:  the  foil.  Clover  after 
maize  which  has  not  been  manured  is  not  likely  to 
fucceed,  efpecially  when  fown  without  a  Jhcltering 
crop  ;  and  this  flieltering  crop  being  from  any  grain, 
would  introduce  the  mifchief  incident  to  corn  on 
corn.  But  even  this  faulty  fyftem  is  far  preferable 
to  any  of  our  old  courfes.*      Had  there  been  only 

five 

*  On  tiie  above  maize  courfe  No.  V.  Mr.  S.  Obfcrves  that 
— "  iinlefs  there  is  fomething  in  the  foil  and  climate  of  Ame- 
"  lica,  far  more  favourable  to  clover  than  in  thofe  of  Eng- 
*'  land,  this  rotation  could  not  be  repeated,  for  reafons  before 
**  given.  It  probably  is  not  fufficiently  afcertained  how  fre- 
**  quently  clover  can  be  fcKTi  in  America."  i>. Duch- 


GRAIN  ROTATIONS.  .^^ 

five  fields,  it  would  have  teen  worfe  for  the  foil ; 
becaufe  a  courfe  of  only  two  fields  in  ameliorating 
crops  to  three  in  exhaufling  corn,  mud  in  time  ren- 
der the  ground  weak,  and  comparatively  unproduc- 
tive. Yet  corn  may  follow  com,  where  manure 
has  been  duly  applied,  occafionally  but  not  gene- 
rally, nor  of  choice. 


BETTER  MAIZE  COURSES. 
No.  VI. 


50  acr.  maize 

750 

50         pulfe  (or  root 

0 

SCO 

50         barley 

I  coo 

50         clover 

50         wheat 

75^ 

50         clover 

300  acres,  in  6  fields 

30C0  bufliels 

C  2  No.  VLl. 

'wheat  is  an  Gzc&Mcnt  Jheltering  crop  to  clover,  fo\vn  in  July,  If 
iTiaize  has  been  manured,  a  crop  of  buckwheat,  from  a  fowing 
in  Julr,  may  be  taken  off  in  October,  after  it  has  fhelter^d 
clover  fo^^^l  alfo  in  July  on  tlie  buckwheat  being  fo\v-n.  See 
tiihe  note  page  7.  50.  American  beans  are  meant  in  Ameri- 
can crops. 


i^^  GRAIN  ROTATIONS.' 

No.  VII. 


43  acr.  maize 

^45 

43         pulfe  or  roots 

430 

43         barley 

860 

43         clover 

43         wheat 

645 

43         clover 

43         clover  (a  fecond 

year) 

;oo  acres  iu  y  fields 

2580  bufliels. 

Here  the  corn  crops  are  interpofed  by  clover 
and  pulfe  :  both  of  them  ameliorating  to  foil ;  efpe- 
cially  when  the  pulfe  grows  in  rov\-s  fo  near  as  to 
JJjadg  the  well  plowed  and  cleaned  intervals ;  and 
thefe  crops  are  of  three  or  four  amehoratcrs,  to 
three  exhauflers.* 

BEAN-COURSES. 

Farmers  having  wafliy  foils,  who  would  exclude 
maize  from  their  crops,  may  adopt  No.  II.  in  five 
fields ;  or  one  of  the  following  in  6  or  7  fields ;  ob- 
ferving  that  the  beans  mufl  be  the  American  forts. 

No.  VIII. 

*  Wheat,  barley,  rye,  maize,  oats,  and  generally  all  foris 
■jf  gi-ain  of  which  l/rear!  is  made,  arc  ctrnj. 


«RAIN  ROTATIONS, 


n 


No.  VIII. 


50  acr.  beans  and  roots 
50  barley 
^50  clover 
50  wheat 
50  clover 
50         rye 


300  acres,  in  6  fields 


No.  IX.* 


43  acr.  beans  and  roots 
43         barley 
clover 

wheat 
clover 


43 
43 
43 
43 
■43 


rye 
clover 


300  acres,  in  7  fields 


500 
1000 

750 

3000  buihels. 

430 
860 

• 

645 
645 

2580  bufliels. 


Beans  or  peas,  following  clover,  are  drilled  on 
one  deep  plowing  in  June.  Barley  is  fown  in  Sep- 
tember or  October,  on  otie  plowing ;  the  ground 
having  been  left  clean  and  mellow  after  inning  the 

beans. 

*  "  For  reafons  before  given  this  muft  be  die  word  rotation 
"  yet  pointed  out ;  the  clover  being  ro\\-n  three  times  in  leven 
«  years."  S.— This  in  England.  But,  in  America,  clover 
is  free  from  the  difordejs  imputed  to  it  there. 


jS  GRAIN  ROTATIONS. 

beans.  Wheat  is  fown  in  September  on  one  plow- 
ing in  of  the  clover.  What  a  faving  of  work ! — 
Three  crops  on  only  one  plowing  for  each,  and  per- 
formed at  lelfure !  on  ground  in  the  mellowed  con- 
dition. The  beans  are  plowed  for  in  June ;  the 
wheat  in  September  ;  the  barley  in  Oclober,  or  Sep- 
tember :  or  on  ibme  crops  in  March.  One  of  them, 
2.  cleaning  crop,  is  horfehoed  or  fhimmed  without 
any  interference  with  the  plowings  and  other  work 
in  fowing  the  wheat  or  barley.  The  clover  which 
is  to  be  plowed  in  for  beans,  may  be  paftured  till 
June,  if  not  mowed  for  hay  :  this  would  be  efpe- 
cially  advantageous  on  farms  deficient  in  meadow ; 
as  there  will  then  be  two  clover  fields  for  grafs  and 
hay  ;  and  moreover  the  ground  of  that  mozvri^  will 
be  preferved  in  a  light  and  mellow  flate,  for  receiv- 
ing the  bean  feed  on  the  one  plowing.  Thefe  beans 
are  American.  But  if  inftead  of  beans,  the  choice 
be  o^ peas,  then  I  fliculd  expeci  the  Englijhpea  would 
be  beft ;  and  from  what  Mr  Farkinfon  fays  of  peas 
of  the  early  Charlton  garden  forts,  I  would  make 
an  experiment  of  that  fort,  fowing  them  early  in 
'March  as  they  would  bear.  His  propofed  prepara^ 
lien  zL-ith  turnips  and  garden  Englijh  peas,  is  very 
promifing. 

The  following  are  plans  of  all  the  fields  in  No. 
VI.  a  maize  Jj-stem,  and  No.  VIII.  a  bean  Jystem  ; 
ihewing  the  whole  of  their  crops  during  fix  years. 

No. 


GRAIN  ROTATION?. 

No.  VI. 


3^ 


6  Tears.       A        B         C        D        E        F        ,  ^.,/,,. 


I79I 
1792 

1794 

^795 
1796 


Ma 

Be 

Ba 

CI 

Wh 

Cl 

:  Be  ' 

Ba 

C 

w 

:  c 

M  ; 

•  Ba 

c 

W 

.  c 

.  M  • 

Be  ; 

:  c 

.  w 

:  c 

;  M 

:  Be 

:  Ba  ; 

:  w 

c 

:  M 

:  Be 

:  Ba 

C  ; 

:  c 

M 

Be 

:  Ba 

:  c 

.  W  ; 

6  Tears. 
1791 

1792 

1793 
1794 

1795 
1796 


No.  VIII. 
A       B       C       D       E 


Be 

Ba 

Cl 

Wh 

Cl 

Rye 
Be  : 

:  Ba  ; 

C 

w 

C 

R 

:  c 

w 

C 

R 

Be 

Ba  : 

:  w 

C 

R 

.  Be 

:  Ba 

c  : 

:  c 

:  R 

Be 

.  Ba 

C 

w : 

:  R 

•  Be 

Ba 

C 

W 

•  c  : 
•  • . . 

6  Fields, 


Three 


4^  GRAIN  ROTATIONS. 

ITiree  valuable  crops  produced  on  only  one  plo^v- 
ing  for  each,  is  very  important :  and  they  are  on 
ground  in  the  mellowefl:  condition.  Other  valua- 
ble crops  may  be  procured  from  ground  not  even 
once  plovvcd  for  them.  Every  American  farmer  has 
his  maize  field  ;  "which  is  or  ought  to  be  highly 
plowed  or  borfehoed,  and  if  not  fown  with  the  ex- 
hoiistcrs  wheat  or  rye,  it  is  fuffered  to  run  up  in 
ii-eeds  :  but, 

Inflead  of  fowing  v.beat  or  rye  on  the  maize 
ground,  or  leaving  it  naked,  why  not  profit  of  the 
maize  pk-u'Ings  and  cultivation,  in  obtaining  milder 
crops  en  the  fame  ground  which  require  no  other 
cultivation  than  what  are  neccflarily  applied  to  the 
maize,  unlefs  it  be  to  flrew^  manure  along  the  rows 
of  roots,  below  mentioned  ?  Wheat  and  rye  are 
fown  in  other  fields,  on  clover. 

If  the  maize  is  4  feet  apart  in  the  rows ;  and  the 
interval  ground  between  the  rows  7  feet,  the  cluf- 
ters  or  hills  of  maize  are  1550,  fay  1506  on  an  acre. 
Between  the  cluilers  of  maize,  in  the  rows,  may 
grow  cabbages,  or  potatoes.  One  cabbage  in  that 
fpace  J    or  two  holes    cf  potatoes,  a  foDt   apar:.* 

Along 

*  An  acre  of  maize  would  d:us  be  accompamed  with  15CO 
cabbages,  and  3000  potatoe  plants ;  both  whereot  mufl  be 
dunged.  Query — of  the  difference  between  placing  ^t  feeds 
of  cabbages  where  the  plants  are  to  Jiand  and grovi  to  maturity^ 
and  iraKj'^.:antlng  tbe  voung  plants  as  ufual  ? 


GRAIN    ROTATIONS.  4I 

Along  the  middle  of  the  'intervals,  turnips  i  o  or  12 
inches  apart :  or  ruta  baga  the  fame  dlftancc,  fown 
in  May,  in  the  four  foot  flep  or  fpacc,  inflead  of 
cabbages.  Plows  or  fliims  are  to  be  worked  length- 
ways of  the  intervals,  in  a  fpace  of  34-  feet  on  each 
fide  of  the  rows  of  turnips,  whilfl  the  maize  and 
other  plants  are  growing. 

Near  the  end  of  September  or  firfl:  of  October, 
with  fliarpened  hoes,  cut  up  the  maize  ftalks  clofc 
to  tjie  ground-;  having  firft  ftripped  the  blades  and 
cut  off  the  tops,  but  always  leaving  the  cars  on : 
and  pile  the  flalks  and  corn  in  pyramidal  form,  ia 
fmall  parcels,  on  the  turnings  or  head-lands,  to  cure. 
What  of  the  potatoes  or  other  roots  cannot  be  fav- 
ed  in  cellars  and  holes,  may  be  covered  with  earth 
by  plowing. 

The  greatefl  quantity  of  grain  produced  in  a  ro- 
tation is  not  alone  a  proof  of  its  being  the  beft  fyf- 
tem.  A  large  quantity  of  good  meadow  would  yield 
much  hay.  It  is  a  fin  againfl  good  hufbandry  to  fell 
off  the  hay  of  a  farm.  Unlcfs  it  be  with  great  cau- 
tion, where  the  farm  is  near  a  large  town  ;  from 
whence  or  otherwife  it  is  plentifully  fupplied  with 
manure.  Numbers  of  cattle  well  fed  and  well  litter- 
ed, give  the  manure,  in  addition  to  other  manures, 
requifite  for  invigorating  the  foil :    but  numl.^ers  of 

cattle 


42  GRAIN  ROTATIONS. 

cattle  cannot  be  kept  in  good  condition  through  the 
year,  unlefs  clover  or  grafs  as  well  as  hay  or  draw 
abound.  The  fummer  food  and  that  of  fhe  winter 
are  to  bear  a  due  proportion  to  each  other  :  and  the 
fields  of  grain  are  not  to  exceed  the  fields  of  amelio- 
rating  crops.  Thefe  preferve  the  foil,  as  well  as 
produce  crops :  but  grain  reduces  the  foil  in  produc- 
ing the  crops.  Aim  at  income  from  livestocky  which 
improves,  rather  than  from  grain  which  impoverijhes 
3^our  land.  ' 

It  is  reafonable  to  expert  that  the  better  courfes 
No.  VI.  VII.  VIII.  and  IX.  would  yield  by  the  acre, 
more  of  every  article  of  produce  than  the  inferior 
courfe  No.  V,  But  they  are  dated  alike.  Of  the 
feveral  forts  of  white  beans,  I  have  only  cultivated 
the  white  dwarf  or  bufh  bean,  in  my  fields,  which 
was  in  rows  1 8  inches  apart,  and  the  intervals  were 
flirred  and  cleaned  with  a  flbim.  the  blade  whereof 
was  a  little  convex  in  the  line  of  its  front  or  edge, 
and  1 2  inches  wide.  The  ground  perfeftly  clear  of 
ftone  and  gravel.  Thefe  beans  confiderably  fhaded 
the  ground,  though  not  fo  fully  as  was  wiflied.  It 
was  therefore  intended  to  have  tried  the  fort  of  white 
beans  which  would  run  and  Jhelter  the  ground  more 
perfectly,  after  being  horfehocd  with  a  fliim*  re- 
peatedly, 

*  Shims  are  in  various  forms,  acute  or  obtufe,  as  the  ground 
is  ftony  or  not.     In  general,  it  is  a  hos  drawn  by  a  horfe. 


GRAIN  ROTATIONS,  43 

pcatedly,  as  long  as  that  inftrument  could  be  admit- 
ted to  pafs  between  the  rows  to  advantage.      Re- 
moving 

The  blade  of  the  one  I  ufed,  was  1 2  inches  wide,  and  was 
welded  to  a  fmall  coulter  on  each  fide  of  it,  ferving  alfo  as 
flandards  to  the  blade.  Two  ftilts  are  faftened  to  the  coulters 
with  fcrews  and  nuts,  which  could  be  Ihifted  to  different  holes 
for  fetting  the  fhim  to  go  deeper  or  ihallower  in  the  ground : 
but  the  fhiftinfT  tliem  was  little  ufed.  The  Ihim  is  not  ufed 
in  half  plowed  ground  :  but  this  being  previoufly  well  plowed 
and  harrowed,  the  fhim  runs  3  or  4  inches  deep,  and  crum- 
bles the  earth  into  fuch  minute  parts  that,  as  it  proceeds,  the 
earth  feems  to  pour  over  the  blade  of  the  fhim  like  water.  A 
coarfe  rake  of  4  or  5  teeth,  hung  to  the  tail  of  the  fhim,  as 
it  worked.  The  two  coulters  or  fide  ll:andards  feemed  to  in- 
terfere with  the  growing  vines,  when  they  were  advanced  to 
a  confiderable  fize  :  but  there  appeared  no  real  damage  from 
it.  A  fingle  flandard  of  wood  or  iron  would  be  clear  of  even 
full  grov/n  vines.  I  did  not  always  hill  or  ridge  up  potatocb" 
and  beans,  nor  even  maize.  For  though  maize  is  the  better, 
yet  tlie  ground  and  future  crops  are  the  worfe  for  it.  But  it 
is  well  to  edge  up  fome  moderate  quantity  of  earth  to  plants 
cultivated  in  rows  with  the  horfehoe  or  fhim.  The  intention 
whereof  is  to  fmother  infant  weeds  which  have  jufl  broke  out 
clofe  to  the  crop,  and  beyond  the  reach  of  the  fhim.  Hills 
and  ridges  are  not  otherwife  (o  advantageous  as  is  commonly 
thought:  and  there  are  advantages  in  keeping  the  ground 
nearly  level  when  under  maize.  A  flip  of  iron  is  made  to 
fhift  off  and  on  each  fide  of  tlic  blade  of  the  fliim,  for  occa- 
fionally  edging  up  light  ridges  of  earth.  The  fhim  is  an  ci'- 
ccUent  .inftrument  againfl  young  weeds  ;  but  is  infufficiont 
where  grafs  and  weeds  have  obtained  flrcngth.  When  the 
ground  is  in  good  condition,  it  performs  a  vafl  deal  of  work, 
very  fatisfadorily. 


44  CRAIN   ROTATIONS. 

moving  to  refide  in  Philadelphia,  prevented  the  ma- 
king this  experiment.  It  is  faid  that  white  beans 
arc  generally  in  great  demand  in  Madeira  and  the 
fouthern  countries  of  Europe.  I  have  feen  letters 
from  Barcelona  ilating  the  price  of  "  white  beans" 
higher  there  than  of  wheat.  Other  forts  of  Ame- 
rican beans  as  well  as  feveral  forts  of  American  peas, 
I  have  cultivated ;  and  the  crops  of  all  were  rather 
precarious ;  peas  generally  more  fo  than  beans,  ex- 
cepting the  lady  pea,  which  is  round  and  the  fize  of 
duck-ihot.  Thefe  I  preferred  and  chiefly  cultivated. 
They-  make  excellent  foup ;  bear  well ;  and  are 
dwarf  or  bufh  beans.  If  fown,  in  Maryland  the  i  oth 
to  the  middle  of  June,  they  ripen  nearly  altogether  ; 
otherv/ife  not.  They  were  in  rows  t  8  inches  apart, 
and  the  cluflcrs  lo  inches  apart  in  the  rows.  The  in- 
tervals v.'ere  ihimmed  two  or  three  times :  and  the 
plants  handweeded  and  hoed  once  in  the  rows.  Un- 
til fome  other  plant  fliall  be  introduced  which  will 
anfwer  better  than  beans  for  a  fallow  crop*,  farmers 
ought  to  think  nothing  of  giving  a  dollar  a  bufliel 
for  them  to  be  applied  to  produce  a  Jhading  and 
ameliorating  article  of  fallow,  although  not  a  bean 
ihould  be  gained  from  them  :  preferv'ing  the  fyftem 
being  fo  very  important !  It  is  not  uncommon  for 

aftive 

*  Enghjb  peas,  efpeciaDy  the  earl^  garden  forts,  are  the 
plants  that  aniwer  our  purpofe ;  as  Mr.  Parkinfon  has  indu- 
duced  vat  to  believe.     See  p.  38. 


GRAIN   ROTATIONS.  45 

aftive  fpirited  farmers  in  England,  to  fow  feeds  of 
various  plants,  merely  for  improving  their  foil :  fucli 
as  vetches,  tares,  buckwheat.*  Thefe  whilfl  grow- 
ing,/?^//^r  their  fallows;  and  being  plowed  in  green, 
they  ferment  and  open  the  foil.  Such  alfo  is  the  ef- 
feft  from  clover  ;  which  having  wheat  fown  on  it,  up- 
on one  plowing,  is  followed  with  extraordinary  crops. 
In  Italy  farmers  diftant  from  towns  want  manures. 
They  have  no  marl ;  but  they  commonly  apply  lu- 
pines thus  :  the  plants  in  green  full  pod  are  taken  up 
by  the  roots  laid  in  the  furrows,  and  then  earth  is 
thrown  on  them  ;  and  it  is  faid  they  thus  give  a  ve- 
ry fat  manure.  Mr.  Toung  mentions  an  excellent 
courfe  of  fliade  and  green  drefTmg,  preparative  to  a 
corn  crop  ;  by  which  feeds  for  producing  three  crops 
were  fown  on  the  fame  ground,  between  autumn 
and  autumn,  with  only  three  plowings,  thus :  win- 
ter 

*  Vetches  and  Tares  arc  d'fFerent  names  foi  the  fame  pulfe, 
the  varieties  are  great.  Generally,  they  are  divided  into  win- 
ter and  fummer  vetches.  Confult  Mr.  Anderfon's  Agricul- 
ture. He  fpeaks  of  forts  Avhlch  are  perpetual.  I  would  pre- 
fer a  vetch  hardy  enough  to  bear  out  winters ;  and  that  is  of 
quick  growth  and  ripens  early,  whether  it  be  of  the  perennirJ 
kiiTd  or  not.  With  fuch  a  plant  might  be  pra^ftifed  Mr.  I'oun^'s 
**  round  and  complete"  mode,  prefcntly  mentioned  in  the  tcxi 
One  fort  of  winter  vetch,  I  have  tried ;  the  feed  imported 
from  Enaland.  The  feeds  v/ere  fown  in  two  fnoccnive  au- 
tumns. The  ground  being  rather  of  the  fort  called  "  water 
"  holding,"  only  about  a  moiety  oi  the  pl.mts  Rood  ihrou^U 
the  winters. 


46  GRAIN  ROTATIONS. 

ter  tares  were  fown  in  September  with  one  plowing. 
The  were  reaped  early  next  fummer.  Then  imme- 
diately buckwheat  was  fown  on  one  plowing  and  har- 
rowing. The  buckwheat  was  plowed  in,  in  Sep- 
tember J*  and  wheat  was  fown  on  this,  on  one 
plowing  ;  the  crop  whereof  was  great.  "  Thus, 
*'  fays  Mr.  Young,  as  the  fpring  advances,  and  the 
*'  fun  becomes  powerful  enough  to  exhale  the  hu- 

"  midity 

*  Buchiuheat  is  to  be  plowed  in  before  it  feeds,  left  a  new 
growth  becomes  a  weed  to  the  crop  of  corn.  The  Aqua- 
maque  or  Magothy  bay-bean,  cajfia  chamacrijia  Lin.  has  won- 
ders imputed  to  it  as  an  ameliorater  of  the  light  fandy  lands 
in  the  peninfula  of  Virginia.  In  fize  and  other  particulars, 
the  plant  may  be  confidered  as  being  a  Lilliputian  locuft  tree. 
For,  although  it  is  an  annual,  yet  its  ftem  is  a  hard  locuft- 
like  wood ;  and  its  leaves,  flowers,  pods  and  feeds  greatly 
refemble  thofe  of  that  tree.  The  woody  hardnefs  of  the  plant 
is  in  appearance  againft  its  being  a  choice  ameliorater,  as  it 
is  not  likely  to  ferment  and  as  it  were  melt  away  in  the 
ground,  fo  foon  as  buckwheat  and  other  juicy  foft  fubftances. 
No  plant,  however,  can  exceed  ^^JJoade  it  gave  on  a  piece  of 
ground  in  my  garden.  A  Lilliputian  might  have  been  there 
loft  in  darknefs.  This  JhaJe  and  a  perfpiration  from  the  plants, 
during  die  greateft  heat  of  fummer,  togetlier  with  an  extra- 
ordinary quantity  of  blqffoms,  pods  and  hazes,  which  the  plants 
depofit  on  the  ground  are  probably  what  give  the  great  ma- 
nuring and  amelioration,  which  the  people  of  Aquamaque 
fatisfadtorily  experience.  But  this  plant,  which  is  not  the 
Partridge  pea,  is  fo  difficult  to  eradicate,  it  is  faid,  that  it 
might  become  an  injurious  weed  in  other  foils  and  courjes  of 
CT/>ps  than  thofe  in  Aquamaque.  Their  courfes  being  maize, 
oats  and  lay,  cu  a  f;indy  loofe  foil. 


GRAIN  ROTATIONS.  47 

*'  mldky  and  with  it  the  nutritious  particles  of  the 
*'  land,  the  crop  (which  was  from  a  full  fowing) 
**  advances  and  fcreens  it  from  the  action  of  his 
**  beams.  Whatever  weeds  are  in  the  foil  vegetate 
"  with  the  young  tares,  and  are  either  ftrangled  by 
*'  their  luxuriance,  or  cut  oiF  with  them  before  they 
*'  can  feed.  This  crop  is  cleared  from  the  land  {o 
*'  early  that  the  foil  would  remain  expofed  to  the  fun 
"  through  the  mod  burning  part  of  the  fummer  for 
**  three  months ;  and  if  fo  left  expofed,  the  three 
*'  plowings  would  do  mifchief,  except  in  killing  fome 
*'  weeds.  To  give  one  plovying  immediately  and  har- 
*'  row  in  buckwheat,  fpares  expenfe,  and  the  grow- 
*'  ing  herbage  (hades  the  earth  when  it  wants  raoft 
"  to  be  fo  protected  :  withal  a  dreiling  of  manure  is 
"  gained  at  no  expenfe.  It  is  not  in  the  power  of 
"  fcience,  of  theory  or  of  pra(ftice  to  introduce  a  fyf- 
"  tem  more  round  and  complete.  Many  have  fown 
*'  tares  ;  and  many  have  plowed  in  buckwheat ;  and 
**  mofl  have  given  a  year  to  each  ;  but  it  is  the  cgjii- 
"  bination  of  the  two  that  forms  the  merit.'* 

We  may  count  upon  all  the  arable  land  of  farms 
yielding  a  yearly  income,  ivithottt  any  pari  lying  idle 
in  rubbifli  old  field  ;  not  as  what  is  the  cafe  at  prc- 
fent,  but  as  believing  that  perpetual  alternate  crops 
from  the  whole  plowable  land  will  infenfibly  become 
very  general,  as  the  fpirit  for  improvement  fiiali, 
though  flowly,  advance  on  the  grounds  of  reafon  and 

experiment. 


4?  GRAIN  ROTATIONS. 

experiment.  With  thefe  may  be  eflablillied  fmnd 
and  familiar  fy stems  of  the  heft  agricultural  employ" 
ment :  in  which  ameliorating^  or  mild  crops,  will  be 
at  leafl  as  frequent  as  exhausting  crops. 

Improvements  in  agriculture  will  probably  be  firil 
introduced  amongfl  us  by  foldiers,  failors,  phyfici- 
ans,  clergymen,  or  others  who  become  hufbandmcn 
with  minds  unfettered  by  the  confined  views  and  ha- 
bits in  which  common  farmeri  are  trained  according 
to  thofe  which  had  been  fixed  on  and  handed  down 
through  many  generations.  Attentive  hufbandmen 
will  at  firil  only  look  on,  afhamed  to  imitate ;  which 
would  imply  deficiency  in  their  own  practices :  yet, 
after  a  while,  they  will  cautioufly  begin  to  adopt  cer- 
tain of  the  approved  new  praftices.  Varying  thefe 
in  fome  unimportant  particulars,  they  will  cherilh 
them  as  difcovcries  altogether  their  own.  It  is  a  fort 
of  apology  they  make  to  themfelves,  for  their  imi- 
tating improvements  pointed  out  by  men  they  deem 
ignorant  of  what  themfelves  praflife  and  deem  to  be 
farming. 


A  Parti' 


DESIGN,    ^c.  49 

A  Particular  Dejign  for  a  Grain  Fann.* 

timothy  grafs,  when  cut  not  before  milk  is  in  the 
feeds,  makes  a  brovvnifti  and  feeraingly  harfli  hay  : 
but  horfes,  the  bell:  of  judges,  prefer  it  to  early  cut 
green  hay.  On  fome  accounts  orchard  grafs  may  be 
preferred  for  permanent  meadows.  It  comes  early 
in  the  fpring,  lafts  till  winter,  is  hardy  and  gives  large 
crops.  The  feeds  of  it  fhatter  out  before  the  heads 
are  generally  changed  from  the  green  colour. 
Watch  the  moment  for  faviag  feeds  of  it. 

Keep  20  acres  of  permanent  meadoiu'm  timothy  or 
orchard  grafs,  for  hay.  This  lad  comes  early  in  the 
fpring,  with  clover.  They  may  be  cue  immediately 
one  after  the  other,  or  at  the  fame  time ;  and  the 
hay  flowed  away  together,  layer  on  layer  which 
may  be  a  means  of  correcting  fome  fuppofcd  bad 
quahties  in  clover  :  at  lead  thofe  dry  hays  would 
abforb  any  redundant  moiilure  remaining  in  the  clo- 
ver hay.  Befides  you  can  (lack  your  clover  hay  out 
of  doors  more  fecurely,  when  you  have  a  good  quan- 
tity of  timothy  or  orchard  grafs  meadow  for  furniih- 
ing  the  clover  flacks  with  good  toopings  from  its  hay ; 

D  if 

*  Written  for  die  late  Mr.  Riga! ;  when  he  thought  of  fit- 
ting down  on  a  grain  farm,  at  a  confidcrable  diftance  irom 
tow** 


53  DESIGN     FOR 

if  Tcu  are  not  in  the  practice  of  thatching  with 
ftraw. 

JHomeftead     i  o  acres 
Meadow         20 


(^  Crops 


120 


150 

Acres.  Acres. 

20  Pulfe  and  roots,  fal-    17  Maize, 

low  crop.  17  Pulfe  and  roots,* 

20  Barley,  1 7  Barley  or  ry-e. 

20  Clover.  17  Clover,  f  The  wheat  being 

I  inned,  this  may  be 
^  ■TTT'U      M.       fown  in  July  with 
17  Wheat.  ^Bw.  &  Clover,  if 
I  the  foil 

20  Rye  17  Clover.  ^°°"«^- 

1 7  Roots,  or  cl.  2<i  year. 


I  inned,  this  may  be 

20  Wheat.  -rjji  !  fown  in  July  with 

^,  17    ^»^C^t.  <  B^,  &  Clover,  i 

«0  Clover.  I  the  foil  is  rich  e 


120  acres  in  6  fields.         120  acres  in  7  fields. 

The 

*  Infiead  of  pulfe  or  roots,  here,  there  may  be  a  manur- 
ing given  by  a  fpring  ib^wing  of  buckwheat  turned  to,  and  then 
buch'-j.'beat  fown  in  July  for  a  crcp,  with  clover  {tti.  on  it: 
vhich  would  give  a  fyftem  in  maize  ;  buck'whaif  preceded  hj 
a  manuring  with  plants  turned  in  green,  and  ibwn  with  clo- 
ver on  the  buckwheat ;  chver ;  'wheat :  clover ;  barley  or  rye 
and  roots  ;  clover  or  puife,  in  7  fields :  a  great  variety  and 
change  of  fpecies  tlie  whole  eafily  manured  in  every  7  years  ! 
and  according  to  page  ^6,  there, may  be  a  portion  allowed  to 
lay,  in  treado^j:.,  during  the  rotation  of  crops ;  and  another 
portion  7  years  in  hemp.  If  the  7725/2-  ground  has  been  well 
taenured,  en  the  iaft  plowing  in  July,  huck'wkeat  may  be  fcwed 


A    GRAIN    FARM.  5 1 

The  maize  courfe  requires  one  of  the  fields  to  be 
continued  in  clover,  two  ye?rs ;  uniefs  it  be  tended 
in  roots,  buckwheat,  &c.  upon  turning  in  the  firft 
year's  clover,  after  the  fpring  mov/mg.  Potatoes 
are  beft  when  planted  in  June  ;  by  which  their  bulb' 
ing  ftate  avoids  the  too  dry  feafon  of  midfummer,  I 
doubt  however  of  the  buckwheat  crop ;  as  it  is  faid 
to  be  impoverifliing  when  it  feeds.  Roots  are  gene* 
rally  excellent  on  feveral  accounts :  they  are  but  lit- 
tle injurious  to  the  foil ;  and  when  duly  cultivated 
are  even  ameliorating.  They  are  peculiarly  defira- 
ble  as  a  winter  and  fpring  food  to  live  flock,  for 
their  nouriihing  quality,  and  to  correft  the  collive 
tendency  of  their  dry  food,  and  moreover  the  culture 
of  them  affords  the  befl  preparation  of  the  ground 
for  future  crops.  If  you  cannot  think  fo  highly  of 
roots  as  I  do,  you  may  prefer  fix  twenty  acre  fields, 
in  maize,  pulfe,  barley  or  rye,  clover,  wheat,  clover 
one  year.*     In  fome  of  the  flates  there  is  a  ruinous 

D  2  bias 

for  crop^  and  Immediately  on  it,  clover  feed  as  above  menti- 
oned ;  the  ground  being  kept  level  'vj-tkout  any  hill  or 
ridge  to  the  maiz^  plants.  Or  if  a  field  is  meant  to  be 
turned  out,  to  lay  in  meadow  daring  a  rotation  of  crops, 
then  inftead  of  clover,  low  timothy  or  orchard  grafs  \vith  the 
July  fowing  of  buckwheat. 

*  The  produce    of  roots  and  cabbages  by  the  acre    on 
yix.  Muir's  farm,    in  England  is  as  follows : 


5S  DESIGN    FOR  ^ 

bias  for  large  fields  of  grain ^  efpecially  wheat  and 
maize ;  and  this  more  efpecially  in  young  giddy 
farmers,  wild  after  amuferaents,  and  wafteful  of  time 
and  income  v.hich  ought  to  be  applied  to  dormstic 
CQmfcrti.  A  great  deal  of  ground  is  fcratched  and 
hurried  over,  with  the  delullve  expectation  of  much 
wheat  and  maize,  for  extricating  them  from  debt, 
or  to  fupport  their  habits  of  frivolous  enjoyments 
abroad^  inftead  of  improving  their  farms  and  promo- 
ting happinefs  at  home.  But,  how  miferable  are  the 
crops ! — how  irapoveriihed  the  foil  1 — and  how  en- 
tangled the  improvident  farmer  I* 

A 

Tons.  lbs. 

Scarcitv  root   19T  an  acre  ;  57  a  bufheL 

Turnips  i64:  ;  48. 

Potatoes  I  o    ;  60. 

Cabbages 14    ;  4+- 

*  Fanners  di5"er  in  the  opinion  whetlier  buckwheat  is  an 
impoverlfher  or  not  of  foil.  Some  fay  it  impoveriflies  when 
fuffered  to  run  to  feed  :  b-jt  all,  who  bare  tried  it,  admit  that 
it  improves  foil  'a:hen  plo'xid  in  before  it  foims  feeds.  My  ex- 
perience of  it  is  flight.  Few  farmers  fouth  of  Pennlylvania, 
kncvr  the  value  of  buckwheat :  and  being- igrxrant  of  its  pro- 
psnies,  tbe)'  hold  It  in  no  efUma-Jon,  and  avoid  it.  In  Eng- 
land a  Mr.  Farrers  and  Mr.  Young  have  given  their  opinion 
of  it  ai  folic  W3  ;  and  in  Pennfylvania  there  are  few  farmers 
who  do  not  £r.d  their  account  in  it ;  for  all  fovr  it  for  crop, 
and  fame  to  turn  in  a  portion  for  a  manure  to  the  foil.  Mr. 
Farrcrt,  a  coniiderabb  com  faSor,  defires  that  all  who  have 
horfes  to  feed,  will  try  buckwheat  mh:id  ii-Ub  bran,  chaf^  u 


A    GRAIN    FARM.  5^ 

A  bean   faIIo\v  crop  is  where  beans  are  fown  ia 
rows,  about  lo  inches  apart;   and  the /;2/^r-i'^/r,  be- 
tween 

grains,  either  whole  or  broken  in  a  mill.  When  ufed  as  grafs  it 
flulhes  co-R-s  vrith  milk :  it  is  tlierefore  prefumed  the  meal 
mixed  with  grains,  would  have  the  fame  good  effect,  and  en- 
rich the  milk.  A  bufliel  of  it,  he  adds,  goes  further  tlian 
two  bufliels  of  cats ;  even  with  beans  mixed  with  four  times 
as  much  bran  it  will  be  full  food  for  a  hone  a  week,  and  much 
lefs  hay  will  do.  Be  affured,  he  fays,  S  bulhsh  of  luck-xheat 
meal  will  go  as  far  as  i  2  bulhels  of  barley  meal.  He  writes 
this  from  experience,  and  concludes  with  obferving  that  the 
advantages  produced  from  buckweat  are  as  follow  ; 

ift.  To  plc-v  it  in  green,  ameliorates  the  land: 

2d.  In  dry  fummers  it  is  fodder  (or  as  grafs)  for  cattle  : 
and  according  to  the  Farmer's  Calendar,  it  will  mow  twice. 

3d.  If  it  ftands  for  a  crot,  it  may  be  equal  in  qusniity  with 
oats. 

On  what  Mr.  Farrer  fays,  ^^r.  Toung  obferves  that  die  ap- 
plication of  huciruheat  as  a  food  to  horfes,  has  been  very  pro- 
perly touched  on  by  Mr.  Farrer  ;  and  that  it  is  of  very  great 
importance.  On  my  own  repeated  experience,  fays  Mr. 
Young,  this  plant  ameliorates  the  foil  fo  much  that  the  farmer 
may  have  any  crop  after  it,  efpecially  'u:heat ;  and  fo  it  is  com- 
monly cultivated  about  Norwich.  1  An.  199.  Yet  farmers 
in  America  fay  it  is  an  improper  food  for  horfes  on  a  journey 
or  any  active  bufinefs ;.  but  its  meal  mixed  %vith  ctlier  com, 
or  perhaps  with  cut  ftraw,  anfwers  well  even  for  horf.s,  in  a 
flow  draugjht.  But  certainlv  it  is  a  cheap  com.,  which  a;;  "wers 
mjny  g.od  purpofs.  I  never  have  fcen  ground  tolerably  pre- 
pared for  a  buckwheat  crop.     In  ccmmon  it  is  fown  u^oa  3 


54  DESIGN    FOR 

tweeo  row  and  row  are  i8  or  20  inches  apai't,  and 
horfchoed  or  fhimmed  repeatedly ;  whereby  the 
ground  is  kept  flirred  and  dean,  fo  as  to  be  a  well 
prepai-ed  fallow  for  receiving  another  crop.  So  it  is 
of  a  maize  fallow  crop. 

If  one  field  is  manured  in  each  year,  then  the  fix 
fields  will  be  all  manured  in  fix  years,  at  20  acres  a 
year:  and  fevcn  fields  in  feven  years  at  17  acres  a 
year.  The  farmer  who  manures  the  whole  of  his 
arable  fields  in  every  feven  years,  will  accomplifli  a 
great  object,  tending  highly  to  his  domeilic  comfort, 
his  reputation,  and  his  independency  of  creditors  ! 
The  fi:anding  meadow  mud  have  its  {hare  of  manure^ 
and  milder  ameliorating  crops  be  attended  to. 

Manuring  one  field  every  year,  is  to  be  an  un- 
ceafing  practice,  in  a  regular  rotation  for  ever.  Ma- 
nures arc  to  be  faved  in  compact  mafles,  flieltered 
from  the  fun  ',  and  in  feme  meafure  from  the  rain, 
though  what  of  it  falls  on  the  area  of  the  dungheap 

can 

fingle  flovenlv  plowing  of  oat  or  other  ftubble ;  and  die  feed 
is  hurried  in,  as  oats  too  commonly  are,  on  ground  we  know 
not  how  eUe  to  employ.  If  clover  or  timothy  feeds  are  to  be 
fown  during  ihe  hot  weatlier  of  the  fummer,  buckwheat  plants 
give  thj  moil  excellent  fhelter,  ti'l  in  Oftober  the  buckwheat 
is  cut  for  its  crop  :  af.L-r  Avhich  the  fun  can  nc  longer  injure 
the  clover;  but  gives  it  a  due  portion  of  warr.iLh,  and  pufhes 
i:  forvrard  till  cold  of  winter  locks  up  ail  vegetation. 


A    GRAIN    FARM.  55 

can  fcarcely  injure  the  dung,  fome  moillure  being 
requifite  to  its  fermenting.  It  is  advifable  to  make 
fmall  trials  of  your  foil,  with  lime,  gypfum,  clay, 
trench  plowing,  ^-c.  on  flips  of  your  land :  for  no 
one  can  fay  beforehand,  what  will  be  the  efteft  of 
thefe  applied  to  your  particular  foil. 

Every  kind  of  manure  is  to  be  carefully  colle<5led 
and  duly  flieltered.  On  manure  being  carried  to 
the  field,  fpread  and  plow  it  in  quick  as  poffible. 
Have  the  implements  and  the  labourers  ready  on 
the  fpot.  Range  the  loads  in  lengths  ;  fpread  and 
inftantly  plow  the  dung  in,  line  by  line.  It  dilTolves 
better  in  the  ground  when  turned  in  frefli ;  and  the 
whole  llrength  of  it  is  fecured  to  the  foil. 

For  the  fake  of  manure,  and  on  account  of  the 
cattle;  keep  all  live  ftock  houfcd ;  fully  littered; 
duly  fed,  including  a  iliare  of  juicy  food  added  to 
their  flraw.*     A  lefs  quantity  of  litter  is  requilite 

to 

*  I  farmed  In  a  country  where  habits  are  againft  a  due  at- 
tention to  manures  :  but  having  read  of  the  apphcation  of  marl, 
as  a  manure,  I  inquired  where  there  was  any  in  the  peninfula 
of  Chefapeak,  in  vain.  My  own  farm  had  a  greyifli  clay 
which  to  the  eye  was  marl :  but  becaufe  it  did  not  effervefce 
with  acids,  it  was  given  up  ;  when  it  ought  to  have  been  tried 
on  the  land  ;  efpecially  us  it  rapidly  crumbled  and  fell  to  raud, 
in  water,  with  fome  appearance  of  effcrvofccnce.  l^lil'Vv;;cre 
I  fpeak  of  coTcimon ydlo'-ju'tjh  day,  turned  up  to  two  fee:  at  one 
place,  and  three  or  four  feet  deep  at  auotlicr,  proving  very 


^6"  CROPS    WITH    MEADOW 

to  beafts  houfed,  than  when  they  are  in  a  wet,  dir- 
ty yard.  Salt  they  {hould  have  at  all  times  in  arti- 
ficial licks  without  flint.  Mr.  BakewcU  for  many 
years  gave  no  litter  to  his  cattle.  On  the  bare  ear- 
then floors  of  their  flails,  in  houfes,  they  were 
clean  and  ileek  coated.  What  of  flraw  mufl  in 
yards  have  been  difpofed  of  in  litter  and  a  mere 
fhew  of  manure,  was  advantageouHy  given  as  food 
for  keeping  more  cattle.  Mr.  Cook  apphed  his 
flraw  in  the  fame  way — houfing  the  flock  and  cut- 
ting up  and  feeding  away  every  inch  of  flraw. 


A  System  of  Rccurr'mg  Crops  ;  in  'which  one  Field  is 
in  Mcado\v  ivhilst  the  others  are  interchanging 
Crops :  '■cvith  a  Flan  of  a  Farm  Tard,  and  Build- 
i!?gs,  adapted  to  it.     See  pa.  25. 

To  farmers  approving  of  the  new  methods  of  cul- 
tivation, but  who  contend  that  a  part  of  the  arable 

ground 

produflive  of  mellon  vmes.  Mr.  2'curg  fpeaks  of  clavs  (4  E. 
Tour  412.)  where  8  loads  pji  acre  on  a  fdrufj  Icam^  anfwered 
greatly.  At  another  place,  40  loads  of  clay  an  acre,  on  rich, 
light,  mixed  loam,  lafted  40  years.  All  whereof  was  in  a 
country  laid  to  underftand  and  to  have  experienced  marl  more 
thin  moll ;  and  they  there  prefer  the  chy  to  marl,  where  both 
are  to  be  hud.  This  is  important !  and  impels  me  to  repeat 
ir,  that  farmers  are  to  makt  trials  of  their  foils,  in  fmail  par- 
cels, with  chyt  and  other  fiibftinces.  Alfo  trials  of  trench 
plowiiJg,  of  varjoub  depths. 


IN      ROTATION.  "57 

ground  ought  to  lay  out  a  number  of  years  at  per- 
fect rest  from  being  broken  up  or  yielding  any  thing 
elfe  than  grafs,  the  following  delign  is  fubmitted ; 
the  rather,  as  a  permanent  meadow  of  fpire-lcaved 
grafles  certainly  is  very  advantageous ;  efpecially 
if  it  be  only  cut  for  hay  and  never  trod  clofe  in  paf- 
turing,  except  it  may  be,  difcretely,  the  aftermath, 
and  alfo  that  it  be  fupported  by  manures.  Any 
found  land  may  be  brought  to  yield  crops  of  grafs : 
but  clover,  requiring  renewal  every  fecond  year,  is 
infufficient  for  a  (landing  or  permanent  meadow. 

The  prefent  deflgn  allows  a  feventh  of  time  in 
grafs  ;  and  is  accompanied  as  well  with  the  fyftem 
of  recurring  rotations  of  crops,  as  with  eflimates 
and  obfervations  which  may  afford  ufeful  intima- 
tions. 

Acres. 

Fds.  30  Timothy,  in  standhig  meadonv  during  the 
years  in  which  the  other  fields  are 
under  a  change  of  crops." 
30  Maize.  About  the  lafl:  of  July  buck- 
wheat and  clover  feeds  are  fown 
on  it;  the  maize  having  been  pre- 
viouily  ma?iured,  plowed,  harrow- 
ed, occafionally  rolled,  and  left 
quite  /evci  without  the  lead  hill 
or  ridge.* 

•^o    Clover. 

-^  30 

*  New  mode  of  cuUivatinof  maize. 


5S  CROPS    WITH    MEADOW 

30  Wheat,* 

30  Clover.      Gypfumed  in  the  fpring ;  if  not 

before  on  the  clover  fown  on  the 

maize,! 

30  Rye 

*  Mr.  Middleton,  fanner  on  Pool's  Ifland,  informs  me, 
that  in  December  he  gives  his  wheat  a  top-drefilng  of  frefti 
dung  from  the  ftable,  and  tlien  rolls  it.  In  the  fpring  he  rolls 
it  again,  and  "  finds  the  wheat  is  improved,  and  greatly  re- 
*'  lieved  from  the  Heffian  Jly.  The  dung  gives  vigour  to  the 
*'  plants ;  and  rolling  fmothers  or  crufhes  many  of  the  eggs 
*•  or  maggots." — Mr.  Middleton,  bred  to  the  fea,  is  an  excel- 
lent farmer  ;  and  has  practifed  as  above  two  years,  for  oppof- 
ing  the  fly. 

\  Where  the  manurings  2crt  frequent ^  the  quantity  each  time 
applied  may  be  moderate  :  provided  that  on  the  whole  round 
of  crops  they  fliall  amount  to  a  full  manuring.  The  gypfum 
in  this  cafe  may  be  only  a  bufhel ;  the  lime  20  to  40  accord- 
ing to  the  quality  of  the  foil ;  the  powdered  limeftone  (or 
fliells)  5  or  6  bufhels  ;  the  dung  10  loads,  Thefe  annually 
applied  to  the  fields  in  rotation,  one  after  another,  will  keep 
ground  in  good  heart,  where  exhaufting  crops  do  not  predo- 
minate over  mild  crops.  Gypfum  is  not  a  manure  to  all  foils. 
£0  of  trench  plowing  ;  which  improves  mod  foils,  but  not  all : 
and  every  farmer  ought  to  try  lime,  gypfum,  raw  limeftone 
or  oyfterlhells  in  powder,  clay,  marl,  &c.  in  fmall,  before  he 
pronounces  they  are  or  are  not  manures  to  his  particular  foil. 
Applying  manures  frequently  in  moderate  quantifies,  each  time, 
is  not  recommended  witli  a  view  to  retard  an  immediate  full 
manuring  at  once  where  it  can  be  accomplifhed,  efpecially 
refpe^ing  thin  or  poor  foil :  but  we  are  encouraged  to  expedl 
^hat  frequent  moderate  applications  of  manure  will  anfwer 
our  p-jrpofe ;  although  not  fo  fuddenly  yet  as  certainly  as  if 
penbrmed  at  once. 


IN  ROTATION.  5^ 

30  Rye  and  barley. §     A  top-drdTing  with 
raw  limeftone,  or  (hells,  pulver- 
ized J   6  or  8  bulhels  an  acre. 
30   Turnips  znd  potatoes   18   acres,   beans  or 

peas  12  acres. 
30  Buckzuhcat  plowed  in :   and  in  July  fown 
for  crop — Timothy  feed  on  it.jj 

240 

20  Homeflead  ;  including  manlion,  farm- 

yard,  flackyard,  orchard,  &c. 

260  acres,  arable  and  meadow. 

Produ&s 

§  Rye,  for  its  meal  and  ftraw  to  live  flock ;  barley  for 
beer,  6<:c. 

II  On  covering  the  ludivheat  feed  fown  for  crop,  lofe  no  time 
in  fowing  the  timothy^  leaving  it  uncovered.  The  fame  of 
clover  on  luckzvh.at.  Settling  of  the  foil ;  or  rains,  dews,  or 
vind,  will  fuffice  for  bringing  the  grafs  feeds  to  grow  ;  or  run 
a  light  roller  over  it :  but  beware  that  the  foil  is  not  left  to 
crumble  dovai  or  fettle  before  the  grafs  feed  is  {own.  Suffer 
no  time  to  run  between  fowing  the  feeds  of  buckwheat  and 
grafs  :  but  perform  the  lafl  as  in  the  next  breath  after  the 
buckwheat  is  harrov/cd  in.  If  however,  the  fun  be  very 
powerful,  it  may  be  fafer  to  cover  the  grafs  feeds  with  a  very 
I'l^ht  harrow,  or  li^ht  roller.  Many  clover  feeds  are  fmother- 
ed  by  even  fmall  lumps  of  earth  ;  and  therefore  more  feeds 
are  requifite  than  when  left  altogether  uncovered. 


io  CROPS    WITH    MEADOW 

ProduSls  of  the  Crops,  by  Estimation. 

c. 

Maize  30  acr.  at  20  bufh.  600  at    50  cents  30000 

Wheat  30  12  360       100  36000 

Buckwheat       60  12  720         50  36000 

Rye  &  Barley  30  15  450         60  27000 

Potatoes,  &c.   30  (pot.  4'- =  8oo^-  turnips  I4=''rr-j 

5600^*  at  8'=-=  51200"^-    Beans  12^*=  140''-  t    65200 

=  i40oo'^-*  J 

Hay  60^  120  T.  at  1000"=  120000 

Clover,  foiled     24  ;  mow  4  z=:  60000 

Straw,    hufks   and   fodder   of   00^ • — exclufive    of  7       n 

^  J-     18000 

buckwheat  flraAv.  J 

Buckwheat  ftraw  of  6o^*  loooo 


402000 
Wliich  402000  cents,  by  dotting  off  the  two  figures  on  the 
right  hand  are  4020  dollars. 

Crops 

*  An  acre  ought  to  produce  above  400  bufhels  of  turnips 
or  200  of  potatoes.  Turnips  when  early  thinned  to  about  12 
inches  apart,  and  well  hoed,  yield  above  double  the  quantity, 
and  more  perfeft  than  what  are  fcarcely  at  all  thinned  or  ho- 
ed. Country  people  have  not  refolution  to  cut  up  plants  in 
hoing,  however  thick  they  ftand  ;  as  it  feems  to  them  robbing 
the  ground.  In  eftimates  of  crops,  the  coft  of  cultivation  or 
lowed  country  price  of  produds,  for  country  confumption,  is 
to  be  reckoned,  without  any  regard  to  town  price.  For  what 
is  confumed  by  cattle  on  the  farm,  the  valfte  is  received  out 
of  the  ftock  maintained  and  fattened,  including  their  dung 
and  urine.  An  acre  of  200  hujhds  of  potatoes  at  10  cents  a 
budiel  gives  20  dollars  ;  when  an  acre  of  1 2  bujhels  of  -wheat 


IN  ROTATION.  6l 

Crops  expended  in  Food  to  Live  Stock, 

Stock  cattle  are  ^^/ ••  o\htrs,  zxe.  fattened.  The 
feeding  is  different.  Cattle  kept,  need  no  kind  of 
grain  ;  and  it  would  be  wafle  to  give  it  them ;  nor 
even  hay,  unlefs  to  cows  about  calving  time.  Straw 
with  -s^nj  juicy  food,  fuch  as  roots  or  drank,\  abun- 
dantly fuiEces  for  keeping  cattle  in  heart  through 
winter,  provided  they  d.TC  Jheltered  horn  cold  rains. 
Mr.  Bakewell  kept  his  fine  cattle  on  straw  and  tur- 
nips in  winter.  To  the  fouth  of  Pennfylvania  flock 
cattle  are  kept,  though  indeed  meanly,  in  winter 
on  corn-huJks  and  ftraw,  without  roots  or  drank  or 
any  aperient  or  diluent  material  that  could  correft 
the  coflive  effeft  of  the  dry  food ;  unlefs  mayhap  a 
nibble  of  a  few  weeds  and  buds,  when  they  ramble 
abroad  poaching  the  fields,  and  expofing  themfelves 
to  debilitating  cold  rains  and  fleet.     Water,  often 

too 

0t  loo  cents  gives  but  12  collars.  The  feeding  articles  of 
produce  being  fairly  expended  on  the  farm,  the  foil  is  the  bet- 
ter of  it ;  but  when  they  are  fold  oj",  the  foil  is  foon  weaken- 
ed ;  becomes  unprodufcive,  and  keeps  the  farmer  poor  as  it- 
felf. 

t  The  word  drank  is  given  us  bj  Count  Rumford,  who 
underftands  as  well  the  German  as  the  En^lifh  lancruaze  ; 
and  in  a  work  of  his  in  Engllfh,  drank  is  preferred,  for  diftin- 
guifliing  his  compofition  from  fim-ple  water  as  a  drink.  It  is 
therefore  preferred  in  the  prefent  work. 


6Z  CROPS    WITH    MEADOW 

too  cold  to  be  drunk  by  them,  is  their  only  diluent : 
and  how  common  is  it  to  fee  them  only  fip  and  then 
turn  away  from  their  water,  in  winter ;  efpecially 
when  put  to  it  early,  before  the  fun  has  reduced  its 
cold. 

A  member  of  the  Bath  Agricultural  Society,  for 
fcveral  weeks  boiled  all  the  corn  given  to  his  horfes, 
and  alfo  gave  them  the  liquor  in  which  it  was  boil- 
ed :  the  refult  was  that  instead  of  6  hitjheh  given 
them  unboiled,  3  ^z{/7;i'/iy6i^rf^^^rif(i  anfwered,  and 
prcferved  the  horfes  in  higher  vigour,  and  in  better 
working  condition.  A  gentleman  near  Briilol  con- 
firms this  faft  by  his  experience ;  and  the  inn-keepers 
have  adopted  the  pradice. — This  practice  coincides 
with  the  ufe  of  drank. 


ATabk 


IN  ROTATION. 


OJ 


CO 


^ 


1  J-    Sec  the  t'uio  following  pa^es.  Uung 


64  CROPS    WITH    MEADOW 

Dung  yearly  procured  from  the  above  flock  of 
cattle,  fheep  and  hogs,  may  be  5  from  the  cattle 
820  loads;   the  fheep,    i5o;   the  hogs  60:  in  all 

1060 

*  Mr.  Cook  { drill  inventor)  fupported  in  ivinfer,  40  cait/e 
near  7  months  on  30  acres  ofjlraw,  cut  into  chaff,  and  4  acres 
of  turnips  ;  and  faved  from  them  400  tons  of  dung.  28.  E. 
Rev.  89.  Thefe  cattle  had  \htn  Jiraiv  cut  f??iaU,  but  the  tur- 
nips vv^cre  ranu.  Had  the  cut-ftraw  and  turnips  been  loUed  to- 
gether in  water  with  fait,  as  a  dtanh  (a  term  convenient  to  be 
retained)  it  would  have  been  of  more  advantage  to  the  cattle. 
A  drank  for  keeping  cattle  may  be  made  thus  :  roots,  chaff  or 
cut-ftraw,  and  fait,  boiled  together  in  a  good  quantity  of  wa- 
ter :  tlie  roots  cut  or  mafhed.  The  cattle  drink  the  water, 
and  eat  the  reft.  Drank  for  fattening  cattle,  thus  :  roots, 
meal,  fiaxfeed,  chaff  or  cut-ftraw  and  fait,  well  boiled  together, 
in  a  plenty  of  water.  If  given  warm,  not  hot,  it  is  better. 
The  70  full  eaters  are  thus  ftated  : 

Cows        48  Calves  8 

Bulls  2  Yearlings     8 

Oxen         14  Two  years  8 

64  24=14 

64 


Off  the  fattened  8 

Winter  full  eaters  70 

In  the  note  under  the  article  Farm-Yard  Manure  com- 
pared witli  the  above  it  may  be  feen  tliat  homed  cattle  were 
lo'mtered  in  England,  witli  |tlis  of  an  acre  of^raw,  and  -j%th 
of  an  acre  of  turnips :  when  in  the  above  table  is  allowed  i 
and  |d  acre  o(  Jirazu,  and  tz^  acre  of  turnips.     In  general 


IN    ROTATION.  65 

1060  loads.*  At  10  loads  an  acre,  the  1060  loads, 
together  with  the  other  manures  propofed,  is  dung 

E  enough 

it  may  be  reckoned,  in  •whiter-leeping,  one  acre  oi  Jirwj}  and 
Toth  acre  of  turnips  are  eaten  by  cattle  each  head.  The 
above  70  cattle  are  fuppofed  to  yield  1 1  and  |:ths  tons  of  dung 
each.  When  ^Ir.  Cook's  gave  but  10  tons  each.  His  is 
pure  dung  without  any  ftraw  \  the  other  is  from  cattle  I'ltier- 
eJ ;  and  therefore  has  fome  ftraw  mixed  with  it. 

f  Lambs  to  drop  about  20th  March,  60  :  whereof  raife  38 
for  fupplying  the  places  of  13  ewes  and  rams,  killed  at  4 
years  old,  and  25  weathers  killed  at  2  years  old.  There  may 
remain  20  lambs  for  fale.  The  winter  kept  fheep  will  be  52 
ewes  and  rams,  and  the  38  lambs  ;  togedier  90  head.  The 
fame  numbers  are  foiled  in  fummer.  Not  having  feen  any 
inftance  oi  fieep  foiled,  I  only  believe  from  certain  circum- 
ftances  and  fads  ftated  by  writers  that  it  would  anfwer  well, 
as  with  other  beafts  :  and  in  Flanders,  it  is  faid,  **  their  fheep 
are  al-u<ays  in  ftables,  and  every  day  let  into  the  yard,  to 
breathe  the  air."  20  An.  466. — Sheep  are  a  neceffary  vari- 
ety of  live  flock.  Their  meat  is  generally  valued,  and  by 
many  preferred.  Their  wool  is  elfential  in  clothing.  Their 
dung  is  rich.  Hogs  alfo  give  rich  dung ;  and  when  atten- 
tively faved  it  is  in  good  quantities.  Sheep  are  to  have  hay 
or  com  blades  in  winter  with  roots  and  fait :  for  fattening 
tliem  add  Indian  meil.  How  would  flaxfeed  or  its  jelly  agree 
with  fheep  ?  The  turnips  and  potatoes  expended  above,  are 
more  than  need  be  for  keepings  according  to  Mr.  Cook ; 
though  too  few  for  fattening. 

•  Cattle  in  England,  when  /«//y  Uttered.,  have  given  twelve 
Urge  loads  of  yard-manure,  each,  in  the  courfe  of  a  winter 
only.     During  fummer  they  ran  on  pafture.     But  in  the  pro 


66  CROPS     WITH     MEADOW 

enough  for  i  oo  acres.  Twenty  loads  of  fuch  rich 
dung,  to  an  acre,  would  be  a  good  manuring  alone : 
but  the  1060  loads,  laid  on  one  of  the  fields  of  30 
acres,  give  above  35  loads  an  acre ;  which  arc  abun- 
dant. A  variety  of  manures  is  defirable :  gypfum, 
lime,  raw  limeftone  and  fhells  in  dufl,  marl,  clay,  Sec, 

If  no  more  live  flock  were  kept,  than  fliould  be 
neceffary  for  labour  and  food  on  the  farm,  and  all 
the  crops  were  fold  off,  the  income  for  a  few  years 
might,  at  the  mofl,  a  little  exceed  what  could  be 

derived 

pofed  cafe  of  cattle  being  houfed  through  the  whole  year, 
though  but  partially  littered,  the  dung  being  well  faved,  may 
be  expeded  to  amount  to  more  tlian  10  loads  each,  of  clofer, 
richer  manure.  Mr.  Bakewell  was  not  in  the  pra(flice  of  lit- 
tering his  cattle,  till  fome  years  before  his  death :  but  he 
carefully  faved  their  dung,  by  dally  fliovelling  it  up  from  their 
ftalls,  and  ftoring  it  on  the  dunghill.  A  man  and  a  boy  at- 
tended to  40  head  of  grown  cattle.  Not  having  feen  dung 
iaved  from  fheep  or  hogs,  my  calculation  refpe(Sing  their 
dung  is  at  random.  Reckoning  5  llieep  to  a  cow,  it  is  then 
fuppofed  they  make  but  half  as  much  dung  as  one  cow,  and 
the  eftimate  fliould  be  under  rather  than  over  rated.  The 
dung  at  the  rate  of  five  hogs  to  a  cow,  68  hogs  ought  to 
yield  136  loads  :  but  there  are  only  60  of  hogs  dung  ftated. 
Great  aitent'iQiis  are  due  to  faving  their  dung.  Though  hogs- 
ieem  to  make  much  dung,  and  it  is  very  good,  yet  it  is  ap- 
prehended it  will  be  long  ere  old  habits  will  give  way  to 
American  farmers  adopting  proper  methods  of  faving  this 
valuable  article  of  produce.  Geefe  peimed  every  night  on 
litter,  wQuld  give  dung  worth  the  attention. 


IN   ROTATION*  67 

derived  from  Tifull  stock  of  beasts  kept  on  the  farm, 
znd  fattened  for  the  market.  But  how  great  the 
injuftice  to  the  foil !  to  what  a  heartlefs,  unproduc- 
tive ftatc  it  foon  would  be  reduced ! — This  it  is 
which  has  ruined  the  line  lands  in  Maryland  and 
Virginia — plowing  much  land,  and  felling  off  the 
produce,  without  reparation  to  the  foil — This  it  is 
which,  with  idle  or  wafleful  habits,  rivets  on  country 
families  frequent  want,  poverty,  and  debts,  oft-tiraea 
in  the  midfl:  of  a  deceitful  appearance  of  plenty  ? 

It  is  prefumed  the  foil  of  the  farm  under  confi- 
deration  is  in  good  heart  j  and  in  a  way  of  becom- 
ing better  from  a  mode  of  farming  far  fuperior  to 
what  is  feen  in  the  countries,  of  America,  fouth  of 
Pennfylvania.  In  Pennfylvania  and  the  eaftern 
Hates,  quick  renewals  of  clover,  in  tntlrc  fields, 
are  coming  into  pra(flice  ;  and  with  various  manures 
are  feen  to  reftore  abufcd  foil,  and  yearly  improve 
it.  But  in  the  countries  of  noted  bad  hufbandry 
there  is  only  feen,  what  is  bragged  of,  here  and 
there  a  lot,  a  patch  of  clover :  a  narrow  aim  at  do- 
ing fomcthing.  It  feeds  a  favorite  horfe;  but  there 
is  nothing  done  towards  improving  enure  fields  :  no 
fyflem  or  great  objefl  or  defign  is  in  view.  A  third 
of  the  whole  arable  of  farms  fown  with  clover  yearly 
upon  fmall  grain,  and  cut  one  feafon,  then  plowed 
in  together  with  the  remains  of  old  Hubble,  might, 
be  cxpcftcd  gradually  to  improve  foil  from  poor  clo- 
E  3  ver 


68 


CROPS     WITH    MEADOW 


ver  nibbled  to  flout  clover  cut.  Whilfl:  this  courfc 
of  improvement  is  in  praftice,  all  forts  of  manures 
are  to  be  unceafmgly  added.  Here  let  it  be  repeat- 
ed that,  it  is  not  immediate  income  alone  whicb  the 
provident  farmer  aims  at :  for  whilfl  he  wiHics  to 
obtain  annual  full  crops,  he  knows  it  is  neccffary 
for  the  purpofe,  that  the  foil  fliould  be  prcfervcd  in 
full  vigour.  His  cares  are  therefore  chiefly  appHcd 
to  the  fiteans  of  preferring  and  improving  the  produc- 
tive powers  of  the  earth  :  and  he  fees  that  no  randcwn 
purfuits  can  enfure  a  fuccclEon  of  advantageous  huf- 
bandry. 


INCOME,  FROM  THE  PRODUCTS;  BT  ESTIMATIOh^. 

c,      c. 


From  WHEAT.     Sold 

CATTLE. 

Veals  40  at  400  cents 

Butter,  8olb,  a  cow,  384clb.  at  ao  C. 

Beef,  6  cows,  a  oxen,  at  a27j  C. 

Dung,  10  loads  each,  Sao  at  5c  C. 

SHEEP. 

Wool  40o]b.  at  25  C. 

Muttons  58,  al  400  C.  .  .  . 

Lambs  20,  at  150  C.  .  .  . 

Dung,  180  loads,  at  50  C     . 

HOGS.  ^ 

Pit  a  fows,  50  hogs  of  lomo. — 30  of  ijmc. 

— loooolb.  at  6  dols.  per  loo 
Lard,  cf  the  mtcftines 

Dung,  60  bad*,  at  5  c  C.   . 


a 


16000 
76800 
i8aoo 


■IIIOOO 

41000 


■ijaoca 


lOOOO 

15200 
3000 


aSioo 
9000 


37200 


60000 

3000 


630CX5 

3000 


66000 


Dis. 
8912 

Cts. 

.00 

Total  income 

ajiaoo 

I164 

.80 

Expenccs, 

4C 

per 

cent 

116480 

1747 

.20 

Net 

174730 

The 

IN    ROTATION.  69 

The  Farmer  whofe  paiTion  is  for  cultivating  grain 
— and  all  grain,  here  fees  how  inferior  his  income 
is  to  the  produ(ftions  from  live  stock.     The  maize, 
buckwheat,  rye,  barley,  &c.  arc  confumed  on  the 
farm ;  and  the  wheat  is  looked  to  for  procuring  mo- 
ney.    But  fee  the  difference  between  grain  at  mar- 
ket, and  live  stock  at  market !   The  produce  of  the 
farm  is  2912  dollars;   of  which  only  360  are  im- 
mediately from  grain  fold:  fo  that  the  income  from 
live  stock  is  2552   dollars— How  fuperior  the  live 
stock  I  for  the  foil,  and  for  the  pocket !  and  that 
the  corn  (grain)  is  all  confumed  ^except  only  the 
wheat)    by    the    family    and   the   live   ftock,    to 
the  amount  of  1720  bufhels.     Sec  page  6^.     In 
the  Muf.    Ruft.  anno   1746,   is  a   detailed  flate- 
ment  of  nine   years  com.parative    experiments   of 
the  produce  of  a  grain  farm  of  20  acres,  againft  the 
produce  of  20  acres  of  a  grafs  and  stock  farm :  when 
the  grafs  and  stock  proved  the  most  profitable  in  iiet 
income  as  23.  1 1.  2  are  to  9.  15.  6.     The  graf  and 
stock  ncating  23.  11.  2  per  annum,  medium,  and 
the  arable  or  grain  farm  neated  9.  15.  6:  a  flrong 
corroboration  of  our  above  eftimate,  as  alfo  is  the 
account  of  live  stock  stallfed,  on  the  Hanoverian 
farms. 


Illustration^ 


'}'> 


CROPS    triTH    MEALO^'? 


iLLVSTRAriDx,  cf  the  ivhole  rou?id  of  Crops  during  7 
years  ;  iLiih  one  Field  continually  in  Meadow^  dur- 
ing the  Time  of  the  Rotation, 


yYrs. 

3 

4 

5 
6 


B 


D 


G     H 


Tim. 

Maiz  CI.    Wh.    CI. 

1 

Rve.!  Po. 

Bw. 

"Tim. 

C 

W 

c 

:  R 

:  p 

B 

M : 

Tim. 

w 

c 

R 

p 

:  B 

]M 

c  : 

"Tim. 

C 

R 

P 

B 

;  M 

C 

:  w ; 

[Tim. 

R 

P 

•   B 

:  M 

:  c 

w 

:  C  ; 

]Tira. 

P 

B  : 

I\I 

C 

;  w 

C 

R  ; 

'.Tim. 

B 

]M 

C 

w 

:  c  . 

R 

p  : 

8Fde. 


The  crops  of  the  first  year,  of  this  table,  are 
particularly  treated  of  in  page  ^y  -,.  where  it  is  feen 
that  the  r\-e  field  contains  fome  barley  ;  the  potatoe 
field,  fome  turnips  and  beans  or  peas :  the  maize 
field  alfo  gives  buckwheat.  The  buckwheat  field, 
which  is  next  after  the  potatoe  field,  is  fown  with 
timothy  feed,  for  giving  a  new  meadow  next  year, 
v.hich  like  the  former  is  to  ftand  out  the  renewed 
rotation  of  crops.  This  new  meadow  will  be  on 
field  B.     The  next  on  field  C.  and  fo  on. 


IN  ROTATION.  Jt 

In  defignlng  a  recurring  round  of  crops,  their  fuc- 
ceflion  is  to  be  tried  on  a  plan  or  table,  drawn  for 
the  purpofe,  by  reading  the  table,  and  flightly  mark- 
ing it  with  a  pen  diagonally  downward,  and  feeing 
that  they  run  the  fame  throughout  j  and  moreover 
that  there  are  not  more  nor  Icfs  in  the  number  of 
each  fort  in  a  year,  any  where  in  the  table,  than 
are  in  the  firfl  year  among  all  the  feven  fields,  or 
are  in  B  field,  during  the  feven  years  rotation.  The 
table  anfwcring  in  thefe  particulars,  warrants  a  true, 
orderly  courfe  of  crops  and  employment,  which  will 
recur  for  ever ;  but  as  the  farmer  may,  in  future, 
choofe  to  alter  it. 


AJketch  of  afysiem  of  crops  ;  in  which  one  field  is  7 
years  in  hemp,  and  the  fame  field  is  followed  with 
timothy  meadow  another  7  years ;  whilst  other  7 
fields  are  in  annual  changes  of  various  crops :  fo 
that  of  the  9  fields,  1  are  in  hemp  or  timothy  dur- 
ing  14  years  ;  and  7  in  various  rotation,  recurring 
crops.  Every  field  coming  into  hemp  and  timothy 
in  time. 


7* 


Years- 

A       B 

c 

D 

E 

F 

G 

H 

I 

I79I 

He.   Tim. 

Maiz 

i  CI. 

Wh. 

CI. 

Rye. 

Bk. 

Po. 

■92 

94 

95 

96 

97 
98- 

99; 

i8co  : 

2  : 

3.' 
4! 

5- 
6  ." 

7^ 

8 ; 

9 1 
5810  \ 

li '. 

;  He.  .'Tim. 

:  c 

:  w 

:  c 

:  R 

:  Bk" 

p  :  M  : 

He.  .'Tim. 

w 

:  c 

:  R 

:  Bk 

■    P 

M  :  c  : 

.  He.  :Tim. 

G 

:  R 

'  Bk 

:  p 

:  M  : 

c  :  w  : 

He.  iTim. 

R 

:  Bk 

:  p 

:  M 

:  c  : 

w :  c  : 

He.  ,'Tim. 

Bk 

:  p 

■  M 

:  c 

w : 

c  :  R  : 

He.  :Tim. 
< X 

Tim.:   M 

p 

><  — 

c 

:  M 

X  —  > 

:  w 

C 

< : 

C 

w 

<  —  > 
R 

c  :  R  :  Bk  : 

< X X X 

Bk :  p  :  He. : 

Tim.:    C 

w 

:,c 

R 

Bk  . 

p  : 

M  :  He. : 

Tim.:  w : 

c 

:  R 

Bk. 

p  : 

M  : 

c  :He.: 

Tim.:  c  : 

R 

'  Bk: 

p  : 

M  : 

c  : 

w :  He. : 

Tim.:  R  : 

Bk 

p  : 

M  : 

c  : 

w : 

c  :  He. : 

Tim.:  Bk  : 

p 

M  : 

c  : 

w  : 

c  : 

R  :  He. : 

Tim.:  p  : 

: — X > 

M  :  He. : 

M 

c  : 

c  : 

< X 

w : 

w : 

c  : 

. . .  \ 

c  : 

C X 

R  : 

vR  : 
Bk: 

Bk :  He. : 

X  —  x^ 

p  :Tim.: 

c  :  He. : 

w  : 

c  : 

R  : 

Bk: 

p  : 

M  :Tim.: 

w  :He. : 

c  : 

R  : 

Bk : 

p  : 

M  : 

c  :Tim.: 

c  :He. : 

R  : 

Bk: 

p  : 

M  : 

c  : 

W  :Tim.: 

R  :He. : 

Bk: 

p  : 

M  : 

c  : 

w  : 

c  :Tim.: 

Bk :  He. : 

p  : 

M  •: 

c  : 

w : 

c  : 

R  :Tim.: 

p  :  He.': 

M  : 

X 

c  : 

X 

w : 

X 

c  : 

X 

R  : 

X 

Bk  :Tim.: 

X X  3 

Fieldji 


ift  Ro. 


11 

The  ground,  well  prepared,  is  in  April  fown  with 
hemp^  and  for  7  years  fucceilively,  after  being  plow- 
ed and  harrowed  in  the  fall  and  fpring,  fometimcs 
with  inanure  added,  it  is  repeatedly  in  hemp. 

Timothy  \t  to  follow  hemp  ;  fo  that  in  the  feventh 
year,  the  hemp  being  inned,  and  the  ground  plow- 
ed and  harrowed  fine,  you  fow  buckivheat  and  I'lmo- 
ihy  feeds,  after  the  hemp  crop. 

This  is  continued  7  years  in  timoihy,  mowed  once 
a  year  for  hay  j  and  now  and  then  receives  a  top- 
dreffing  of  manures,*  When  the  7th  crop  is  off, 
plow  in  the  fward  neatly,  and  harrow  and  roll  it  in 
the  direction  of  the  furrows.  The  fward  being 
duly  fmothered,  heats  and  rots  the  better  if  done  be- 
fore cold  weather.  It  refts  thus  till  April  for  perfeft- 
ing  the  rotting.     Then  lift,  crofs,  and  plant  maize. 

Potatoes  manured  and  well  cultivated,  clean  and 
mellow  the  ground  perfcftly. 

Hemp  leaves  the  ground  clean  and  mellow,  there- 
fore timothy  is  renewed  after  hemp.  Timothy  being 
fowed  when  the  buckwheat  is  fown,  the  plants  gain 
a  neceifary  ilielter  from  the  buckwheat  plants. 

The  maize  culture  cleans  the  ground,  and  pulver- 
izes it  after  timothy,  for  future  changes  of  crops. 

A 

*  Why  not  generally  give  manure  to  grafs,  rather  tlian  to 
grain.  Grain  will  receive  the  benefit  to  great  advantage  after 
grafs.     Ground  that  gives  ^oo(/_j/\y^,  ^wts  good  eveiy  thing. 


74  FARM    YARD» 

A   FARM   TARD, 

Adaptlb  to  ihe  Pp^cedjng  System. 

It  is  a.n  efpeclal  object  in  this  deCgn  that  the 
x^hole  yard  and  its  buildings,  {hould  be  in  view 
from  the  manfion ;  and  that  they  be  confbnicled  at  a 
proper  diHance,  neither  too  near  nor  too  far  from 
the  manfion.  The  food  {hould  be  near  to  the  hoof- 
ed live  flock,  for  readily  diftributing  it.  The  yard 
ought  to  be  compact  j  and  the  doors  of  the  build- 
ings, and  the  gates  of  the  yard,  feen  from  the 
manfion.*     Plate  1. 

The  homestead  includes  this  yard  ;  together  with 
its  ftackyard,  the  garden,  nurfery,  orchard,!  and 

fome 

*■  It  is  not  to  fave  ground  that  compaclnefs  is  here  defired  ; 
but  t'h::>r  attennoas  due  to  the  live  ftock  may  be  performed  in 
the  readied  and  beft  way.  A  yard  containing  cattle  always 
bcrafed,  is  nerer  to  be  littered  with  draw,  but  all  litter  care- 
lefsiy  dropt  on  it,  is  to  be  raked  off,  for  fecurity  againft  fire 
dropt  on  the  way  to  the  boiling  houfe  ;  and  the  beails  are  not 
ioffered  to  ftroll  about  wafting  dung  and  urine.  When  let 
oat  and  ■watered,  they  are  to  be  infhantly  returned  to  their 
ftaBs,  regnlariy  in  detachments,  one  fet  after  another.  See 
pa.  .  On  paper,  aa  octagon  form  of  a  farm  yard  is  pleaA 
ing  to  the  eye :  but  the  above  is  preferred. 

■fBerr  is  always  certainly  attainable  on  farms  ;  but  cyder  is 
rery  precarious  :  therefore  no  more  orchard  need  be  eflablifh- 

ed  tb^n  wo'uld  plentifully  fupply  the  farm  with  fummer  and 


•FARM    YARD. 


75 


fome  acres  of  grafs ;  enough  for  occafionally  letting 
mares,  or  jQck  beads  run  on,  at  liberty, 

Expla?iation  of  Plate  I. 


1.  Manfion. 

2.  Kitchen,  Oven,  and  Afli- 

liole. 

3.  Poukry-houfc,  and  yard, 

4.  Wood-yard. 

5.  Laboratory  (Laborature). 

6.  Milk-houfe. 

7.  Ice-houfe. 

8.  Pigeon-houfe. 

9.  Cloacas. 


10.  Family  yard. 

11.  Pump. 

12.  Watering  troughs. 

13.  Sow  and  Pig  flies. 

14.  Cow-houfe. 

15.  Boihng-houfe.* 

16.  Hogs. 

17.  Stercories. 

18.  Barn. 

19.  Sheep-houfc,  and  yard. 


20. 


winter  fruit,  for  cookery  and  to  eat.  But  In  great  fruit  years, 
cyder  may  be  made  for  family  confumption,  without  ever 
laying  out  for  It  in  quantities ;  though  it  might  be  better  to 
fell  the  apples.  Beer  is  the  mod  wholefome  of  all  made 
drinks,— the  chief  in  all  the  countries  where  robuft  health  is 
the  moft  confpicuous.  It  proved  on  my  Wye  farm,  very  ex- 
cellent to  harvea  men  ;  who  preferred  it  to  rum ;  and  it  kept 
them  In  fteady  good  heart,  without  any  inftance  of  fuch  irre- 
gularity as  rum  commonly  produces. 

*  The  Boihng-houfe  here  may  be  too  near  to  combuftlbles, 
hay  and  ftraw.  Leaving  this  fpot  for  Swi/l-cijierns  or  tubs  ; 
the  boiling  would  be  better  at  29.  Which  might,  fo  near  the 
manfion,  alfo  contain  a  brewing  and  diftilling  apparatus.  If 
hemp  is  in  the  round  of  crops,  it  may  be  ridcd  at  30,  and 
hroke  and f'wingkd at  a  houfe  at  ^i. 


•Tb 


/ARM   YARD 


20.  Chaife-lioufe  and  flable. 

2 1 .  Waggon  and  cart-houfe. 
3  2.  Implements  of  hufbandry, 

houfe. 

23.  Workfhop. 

24.  Herdfmen's  hovel. 

25.  Granary. 

26.  Stable,  for  farm, 

27.  Area  of  bridge  and  vault. 

28.  Bees. 


29.  Boiling-houfc. 

30.  Hemp  in  ricks. 

31.  Hemp   here   broke   and 

fwlngled. 

a.  Treading-floor. 

b.  Straw  ricks. 

c.  Hay  ricks. 

d.  Root  pits. 

e.  Kitchen  garden. 

f.  Nurfery,  &c. 


The  Manfion,  is  airy  on  every  fide.  The  offices, 
being  on  the  northeafl  and  northweft  angles^  leave 
the  manfion  open  to  the  fouth,  the  eaft,  and  the 
wefl:,  in  a  clean  lawn :  and  from  the  north  rooms 
there  is*a  view  of  the  farm  yard  and  its  bufinefs. 

The  Kitchen^  has  its  oven  and  afhhole  :  this  lall 
opening  ont  of  doors,  for  avoiding  the  difperfion  of 
aflics,  in  the  kitchen,  on  moving  them  for  ufe.  No 
flairs  proceed  from  the  kitchen ;  as  it  would  be  a 
paffage  to  dud  and  down  from  the  bed-rooms  to  the 
kitchen :  the  ceiling  ought  alfo  to  be  water-tight. 
^Lay  an  arch  of  brick  over  the  ailihole  and  oven, 
as  a  barrier  againil  fire,  the  flairs  may  be  over  the 
arch,  from  without.  Indeed  here  might  a  ivajh- 
houfe  have  its  roof  extended,  for  covering  the  ftairs. 
Inadvertently,  the  wafli-houfe  is  omitted  in  the  plan: 
but  the  laboratory  may  be  ufed  for  wafhing  and 
ironing. 

The 


OFFICES. 


n 


The  Poultry-houfe  and  yard  are  roomy  j  and  kept 
fwect  by  being  frequently  cleaned  out ;  and  frcfh 
fand  and  gravel  are  ftrewed  in  the  yard.  Their 
food  may  be  (learned  potatoes  and  meal,  in  wintef ; 
cut  grafs,  potatoes  and  a  little  meal  in  fummcr. 
Poultry  ranging  at  large,  feed  on  grain,  feeds,  grafs 
and  infc(fis.  Gravel  is  ncceflfary  to  them.  In  Lan- 
guedock,  geefe  are  fattened  as  follows.  After  they 
are  in  full  flefli  on  green  food,  the  fattening  of  them 
is  not  to  be  delayed,  left  the  feafon  be  loft.  About 
the  end  of  December  they  begin  to  couple ;  after 
which  they  cannot  be  fattened  :  foon  as  froft  arrives, 
efpecially  about  the  end  of  November,  they  are  fhut 
up,  never  more  than  i  o  or  12  together ;  in  a  dark 
place,  quite  free  from  light,  and  where  they  cannot 
hear  other  g^dc.  Here  they  remain  till  quite  fat. 
This  moment  is  to  be  feized  for  killing  them  j  other- 
wife  they  foon  become  lean,  and  at  laft  die.  A 
trough  is  filled  with  rice,  to  be  eaten  by  them  at 
pleafure.  Rice  makes  them  very  delicate.  Others 
give  them  boiled  maize  in  the  grain.  The  coop  is 
kept  very  clean.  In  two  or  three  weeks  they  arc 
quite  fat ;  they  then  arc  let  out,  to  go  at  large  in 
water  24  hours ;  without  which  the  flefh  has  a  dif- 
agreeable  flavour.  Probably  malt,  barley  or  oats, 
would  fucceed  well,  as  their  food.  By  an  accident 
it  was  found  that  coal  for  them  to  nibble  (I  undcr- 
llood  it  to  be  charcoal)  promoted  their  fattening 
greatly  at  fea.      Treat  ducks  in  the  fame  manner. 

If 


7^  FARM    YARD 

If  a  chicken  is  not  fat  in  a  week,  it  is  diflempered. 
Poultry  are  fattened  in  coops  kept  very  clean.  Give 
them  gravel,  but  no  ivatcr.  Their  only  food  is  bar- 
Icy-meal  mixed  vi'ith  water,  thin  enough  to  ferve  as 
drink.  Their  thirft  makes  them  eat  more  than  they 
would,  for  the  fake  of  extracting  the  water  from 
among  the  food.  This  is  not  put  in  a  trough,  but 
on  a  board ;  which  is  ivajhed  clean  every  time  that 
frefh  food  is  put  on  it.  It  is  foul  and  heated  water 
which  gives  the  pip.  Salt  is  faid  to  be  a  poifon  to 
fowls :  it  may  be  fo,  as  a  cauftic,  when  they  fwal- 
low  grains  of  it :  but  how  v.-ould  it  anfwer  when 
dilTolved  in  water,  not  flronger  of  fait  than  fea-wa- 
ter,  and  oflFered  them  in  a  veffel  feparate  from  their 
frelh  water  ? 

The  Laboratory  (Laboraturc),  is  defigncd  from 
one  invented  by  my  valuable  friend,  the  late  Mr. 
Law/on,  of  Fon thill,  which  anfwered  many  pur- 
pofes  in  country  houfe-wifery.  No  better  name  oc- 
curs for  dlflinguifhing  it  from  other  houfes  on  farms. 
See  a  feftion  of  the  houfe  in  Plate  II.  No.  i.  and 
a  further  account  of  it,  in  the  explanation  of  the 
cuts. 

The  Milk-houfe,  may  be  joined  to  the  Labora- 
tory, and  this  be  a  fcalding  houfe  to  it ;  or  it  may 
be  detached  from  the  Laboratory,  and  funk  two  feet 
under  ground.     The  o5al  milk  is  conveyed  to  the 

pigs 


OFFICES. 


79 


pigs  in  wheel-barrows,  and  might  be  conveyed 
through  a  tube,  under  ground,  to  the  pig-flie.  Ice 
is  at  hand  for  hardening  butter  as  it  is  taken  from 
the  churn  and  worked  on  a  cold  marble  table.  Wa- 
ter cold  from  the  pump  is  ufliered  through  pipes  to 
an  upper  fhelf,  and  paiTmg  round  the  room,  falls  on 
the  under  fhelves  and  runs  off. 

The  Ice-houfe,  will  be  beft  detached  from  the  milk- 
houfe,  that  it  may  be  clear  of  all  moifture,  and 
receive  air  on  all  fides.  The  ice-houfe  at  Glofter 
point,  near  Philadelphia,  flrongly  recommends  that 
it  be  chiefly  above  ground.  Four  feet  under  ground, 
fix  above  ground  and  twelve  fquare,  would  hold 
1440  folid  feet:  which  is  enough  for  family  and 
milk-houfc  purpofcs,  though  very  freely  expended. 

Pigeon-bou/e,  Pigeons  feed  expenfively,  when  it 
is  alone  on  the  corns :  but  they  alfo  feed  on  many- 
wild  feeds.  They  make  an  agreeable  variety  on  the 
table ;  but  ought  not  to  be  fuffered  to  become  too 
numerous ;  and  therefore  their  houfe  is  to  be  of  a 
moderate  fize;  build  it  rather  capacious  in  area, 
than  in  height  or  with  many  ranges  of  ncfls. 

The  Fa7nily-yard,  is  a  barrier  againfl  farm-yard 
intrufions.  It  is  covered  with  a  clean,  clofe  fvvard 
of  fpire  grafs.  Its  margin  alone  may  be  admitted 
to  grow  flowers.     It  is  fenced  by  a  funk  fence ;  on 

thq 


So  FARM    YARD 

the  top  whereof  may  be,  a  low,  light  palifadc; 
which  with  the  bank  may  be  hid  by  rofe  trees  plant- 
ed in  the  ditch,  which  is  to  flope  gently  up  toivards 
the  manfion.  The  white  rofc  bufli  or  tree  is  the 
hardiell:,  tailed  and  handfomed  fort ;  but  the  damalk 
is  bed  for  yielding  the  fine  didilled  water. 

The  Fump  ferves  both  family  and  farm-yard  pur- 
pofes,  and  is  worked  by  a  brake  or  handle  on  either 
fide  of  the  palifade.  This  large  expcnfe  of  water 
is  advantageous  to  its  quality.  The  pump  nozlc 
delivers  the  water  5  or  6  feet  above  the  furface  of 
the  ground  :  and  at  every  time  of  its  being  worked, 
a  portion  of  the  water  is  delivered  into  a  vefiel,  from 
whence  proceeds  a  tube  three  feet  under  ground 
(for  avoiding /rw/  and  heat)  to  the  kitchen,  where 
fome  of  it  is  depofited  in  a  cidern  :  the  red  proceeds 
alfo  under  ground,  to  the  milk-houfe ;  only  leaving 
on  the  way  a  fmall  part  in  a  receptacle  of  the  man- 
fion for  wafli-bafon  ufes.  For  the  boiling-houfe, 
which  takes  much  water,  either  the  water  mud  be 
conveyed  through  pipes,  or  in  caiks  on  barrows,  or 
a  pump  is  to  be  placed  near  the  boiling-houfe. 

The  ivaiering  troughs  are  to  have  plugs  in  their 
bottoms ;  that  when  the  cattle  have  drunk,  the  re- 
mainder of  the  water  may  be  immediately  let  out. 
Indead  of  letting  cattle  out  to  water,  it  may  be  ad- 
vantageous to  convey  water  to  tuciTT  in  their  dalls 

through 


OFFICES.  8l 

through  pipes,  at  two  or  three  flated  time?^in  the 
day  f  and  after  allowing  them  time  to  drink,  let  the 
remainder  out  of  the  trough,  for  avoiding  flalenefs 
or  warmth  in  the  fummer  and  froft  in  the  ivinter, 
Befides,  fuftcr  the  cattle  out  to  ftrole  about  the  yard 
and  rub  themfclves  .daily,  a  few  hours  j  1 1  or  13, 
to  3  o*clock. 

The  foxu  and  pig  stiss.  The  o^al  milk  may  be 
conveyed  to  the  troughs  in  the  flies,  from  the  milk- 
houfe,  by  pipes  under  ground  or  orherwife.  Sticks 
in  a  frame  are  fo  fixed  over  the  troughs,  rack  like, 
that  the  hogs  cannot  get  into  the  troughs,  further 
than  their  mouths.  The  fwine  are  to  be  kept  clean, 
and  littered  in  their  flieltcrs.  Salt  water  may  be 
off-red  them  in  the  pen. 

The  cow-houfe.  Hay  and  ftraw  are  ricked  at  the 
back  of  it;  the  houfe  is  16  feet  wide,  including  its 
paflage ;  7  feet  pitch  for  the  cattle  to  fland  under ; 
and  above  this  7  or  8  feet  pitch  to  the  joifls  and  raf- 
ters. Into  this  upper  part  llraw  and  hay  are  pitch- 
ed up,  to  be  at  hand ;  and  ufcd  efpecially  in  bad 
weather :  from  whence  it  is  thrown  to  the  paiTage^ 
to  be  given  to  the  cows.  Wheel-barrows  of  drank 
pafs  along  the  paiTage  to  the  cattle  cribs.  Thcfe 
barrcrjjs  carrying  heavy  tubs  or  barrels  of  drank, 
would  pafs  with  more  fafety  and  fleadincfs,  with 
two  wU,?eis ;  fuch  as  every  farmer  can  make,   inde- 

F^  pendently 


§2  FARM    YARD 

pendently  of  wheelrights,  by  doubling  inch  plank. 
In  one  corner  of  each  crib  is  to  be  at  all  times  a  falt- 
lick  in  a  firm  mafs  of  the  purefl:  impalpable  potter's 
clay  or  fuller's  earth  faturated  with  fait.  The  very 
important  article,  fait,  is  fhamefully  negle£i:ed,  in 
common.  A  siercory  is  in  front  of  the  cow-houfe, 
"within  eafy  pitch  of  dung  from  ihovels.  Carts  ne- 
ver need  to  pafs  between  the  flercory  and  houfe : 
fo  that  the  fpace  is  defigned  only  for  the  cattle  to 
pafs  along  to  the  doors  of  their  ftalls.  llie  dung 
is  carted  av/ay  from  the  further  fide  of  the  flercory. 

The  boilhig-houfe  contains  alfo  the  conveniences 
for  steaming.  Care  is  to  be  taken  that  fire  cannot 
be  blown  about,  and  mix  with  any  flraw  neareft  to 
it.     For  the  apparatus  for  (teaming,  fee  plate  IIJ. 

fig-  3- 

The  stercories,  may  be  4  feet  under  ground,  2  or 
3  above  ;  and  walled.  Over  them  may  be  fupport- 
ed,  by  (hort  ftandards,  a  covering  of  brufli-wood 
or  draw,  which  will  exclude  the  fun,  but  let  through 
rain.  It  would  be  faving  labour,  and  anfv.er  other 
good  purpofes,  to  cart  the  dung  out  of  the  stercories, 
to  the  bead  lands  of  fields  meant  to  be  dunged  or 
manured  ;  there  mix  with  the  dufjgy  three  times  its 
'  quantity  of  the  earib  taken  from  the  head  land ; 
and  cnce  mixing  it  ziell,  day  be  better  thau  repeat- 

iog 


OFFICES.  8j 

ing  it :  as  often  turning  the  compofl  may  weaken  it 
as  a  manure,  and  even  check  its  fermenting. 

The  barn,  32  to  36  feet  wide,  has  a  pailage  its 
whole  length,  and  flails  on  each  fide  of  the  pailage. 
Straw  is  cut  in  the  paiTage,  and  the  cattle  are  fed 
from  it.  At  the  fouth  end  of  the  houfe,  a  bridge 
is  raifed  from  the  ground  up  to  the  fecond  floor, 
about  8  feet  from  the  ground.  The  bridge  is  the 
width  of  the  barn,  and  has  an  eafy  afcent  for  load- 
ed waggons.  Under  it,  next  to  the  houfe,  is  a  vault, 
for  ftoring  roots,  alfo  the  width  of  the  barn,  by  12 
or  15  feet,  and  6  or  7  feet  deep.  At  the  end  of 
the  paflagc  a  door  opens  into  the  vault.  The  fecond 
itory  is  high  enough  for  thrailiing  in. 

The  Jljcep-hoiife  and  yards,  are  to  be  roomy  and 
airy  in  divifions.  Back  of  the  houfe  is  the  hay  re- 
quifite  for  the  fhecp,  in  ricks.  Its  flercory  is  at  one 
end.  The  dung  is  to  be  carried  to  it  in  large  wheel* 
barrows. 

The  granary  had  better  be  longer  and  narrower 
chan  in  the  drawing  ;  with  partitions  acrofs  it,  with- 
out any  communication  between  the  rooms ;  by 
which  the  different  corns  will  be  kept  from  mixing, 
and  a  general  accefs  to  the  rooms  will  not  happen 
when  only  one  fort  is  to  be  carried  in  or  taken  out. 
A  lock  is  tp  be  to  each  of  the  feveral  out  doors. 
F  3  Windows 


84 


FARM    YARD 


Windovv's  facilitate  thefts.  There  needs  none  to 
the  lower  rooms,  if  an  air-hole  be  between  every 
two  joifts,  clofe  under  the  fccond  floor,  the  vapour 
and  heat  naturally  afccnding  will  pafs  off  at  the  air- 
holes. The  pitch  of  the  rooms  may  be  only  6^ 
feet. 

Bees.  From  inftruftions  given  by  an  Englifh  wri- 
ter, I  tried  bees  in  lateral  boxes.  On  the  firfl:  ex- 
periment, in  the  morning  of  the  firll  of  November 
1787,  after  a  cold  night,  the  bees  being  all  hosfed, 
a  pair  of  the  boxes  were  leaned  on  one  fide,  and  fhew- 
ed  the  bees  were  all  in  one  of  the  boxes  :  on  which 
the  other  box  was  taken  away ;  and  proved  to  be 
full  of  comb  and  honey,  perfectly  pure  without  an 
utom  of  any  thing  foreign.  Not  a  bee  was  killed  or 
even  difturbed.  This  was  on  Wye  Ifland,  where  the 
bees  had  half  a  mile  to  fly  over  the  river  before  they 
could  reach  the  main.  Many  at  times  muft  have  pe- 
ri flied,  in  rains  and  fl:orms,  whilil  they  were  endea- 
vouring to  crofs  the  river  ;  and  the  diflance  in  return- 
ing from  the  fields  exhauiled  their  ftrength  and  re- 
tarded returns  of  honey,  lb  as  to  render  their  parti- 
cular fltuation  very  ruinous  to  them.  In  the  next 
fummer,  a  very  wet  one,  they  were  reduced  ;  and  it 
being  a  bad  feafon  for  honey,  they  all  died  in  the  win- 
tcr,  though  no  honey  was  taken  from  them.  The 
boxes  were  exaci:  cubes  of  i  o  inches'^,  clear.  The-  me- 
tliod  is  promiimg. 

iiic 


OFFICES.  85 

The  trcading-floor.  Though  but  fix  or  eight  horfcs 
fliould  tread  on  it,  yet  it  ought  not  to  be  of  a  lels  dia- 
meter than  80  feet ;  and  the  track  or  bed  of  wheat 
is  narrowed  accordingly.  I  was  long  and  greatly 
prejudiced  againfl:  treading  wheat.  But  experienc- 
ing the  advantages  of  getting  out  the  crops  ys\i\ifpeed^ 
and  very  clean  when  on  a  permanent  well  preferveJ 
floor,  with  horfes  gently  trotted  in  ranks,  airy  and 
diftant  each  rank  from  the  others,  the  preference  in 
my  opinion  is  in  favour  of  treading,  over  the  moil:  ex- 
pert thralliing  with  flails.  So  much  fo  that,  conli- 
dering  the  greater  opportunities  for  the  thrafliers  pil- 
fering, and  the  greater  length  of  lime  of  their  trou- 
blefomenefs  whilil  thrafliing  out  the  crops,  I  would 
prefer  treading  to  having  my  large  crops  thraflied 
for  nothing. 

CLOVER, 

This  IS  an  important  article  in  the  improved  fyflfm 
of  crops  in  rotation  :  but  its  feed  bearing  fome  price 
or  cofling/fl;;:^  labour  to  obtain  it,  renders  it  a  bug- 
bear to  common  hulbandmen,  whofe  habits  have  di- 
verted them  from  a  large  ufe  of  it.  It  is  indeed  ab- 
folutely  neceflTary  that  clover  fliould  be  a  common 
crop  in  rotation  with  other  articles  of  crop,  in  entire 
fields.  It  is  hoped  there  are  farmers  fpirited  and 
determined  enough  to  defeat  popular  obje(5lions ;  and 
who  will  confider  the  coil  not  chargeable  merely  to 

tlic 


86  CLOVER. 

the  crop  of  clover,  but  to  the  whole  round  of  crops; 
the  clover  being  fo  effential  thereto  that  without  it 
the  foil,  the  cattle  and  the  corn-crops  would  greatly 
fuffer ;  and  the  farmer's  income,  his  reputation,  and 
his  independency  would  be  leflcned. 

If  4lb  of  clean  clover  feed,  when  fown  with  fuch 
a  box  as  is  defcribed  below,  clothe  the  ground  as 
well  with  plants  as  lo  or  i2lb  fown  in  the  common 
broad-caft  way  and  covered,  of  which  1  have  had  a 
little  experience,  then  a  bufliel  of  feed  will  fov/  15 
acres.  The  farmer  can  ameliorate  100  acres  with 
clover  more  certainly  than  he  can  20  from  his  fcanty 
dung-heap.  While  his  clover  \%  Jljcliering  the  ground, 
•pcrffiring  its  excrementitious  efiluvium  on  it,  dropping 
its  putrid  leaves,  and  mellowing  the  foil  with  its  tap 
roots,  it  gives  i\i\\  food  to  the  flock  of  cattle,  keeps 
them,  in  heart,  and  increafes  the  dung-hill.  Kor  is 
the  amelioration  by  clover  very  inferior  to  that  by 
dung,  as  this  is  commonly  managed.  In  fom.e  rc- 
fpecls  it  is  preferable.  "With  dung  innumerable  feeds 
of  weeds  are  carried  out  and  fovrn  on  the  fields:  not 
fo  of  clover,  when  the  feed  has  been  properly  clean- 
ed. Clover  is  the  beftipreparative  for  a  crop  of 
wheat.  Dung  inclines  wheat  to  run  more  into  itrav/ 
than  full' grain.  Wheat  on  clover  has  the  beft  grain 
and  the  fulleft  crop. 

A  farming  friend  of  Chefler  county,  gave  me  \ 

plcafing 


CLOVER.  S7 

plcafing  account  of  an  improved  method  for  gather- 
ing and  cleaning  clover-feed.  In  general  the  heads 
of  the  clover  are  rippled  off,  by  a  firaple  machine 
moved  by  a  horfe,  at  the  rate  of  5  acres  of  them  in 
a  day.  The  heads  are  carried  to  an  oil  mill,  having 
two  flones  rolled  in  the  manner  of  a  tanner*s  bark- 
ftones  which  feparates  from  the  haulm,  five  bufhels 
a  day. 

Of  two  fields,  50  acres  each,  in  clover,  one  is  kept 
up  for  giving  feed  in  Auguft,  iifter  cutting  the  early 
growth.  In  10  days  the  50  :icres  of  feed  may  be 
gathered  at  a  fmall  expenfe  ;  and  in  10  more,  50 
bufhels  may  be  feparated  fi-om  the  haulm,  and  clean- 
ed with  a  fan  or  with  fieves.  Whatever  may  be  the 
medium  produce,  I  count  on  only  one  bufliel  of  feed 

an  acre.* 

A  box 

*  Mr.  UHommedieUy  of  New- York,  fays :  "  T]ic  feed  ii 
collefted  both  from  xh&frji  crop  and  from  the  f^cond:  but  the 
largeft  quantity  is  from  tlie  ^rfi.  By  fowing  three  o*-  four 
pounds  of  clover  feed  to  the  acre,  on  light  loamy  foils  which 
yield  8  or  lo  bufhels  of  wheat  or  rye  to  die  acre,  the  clover 
will  not  be  profitable  to  mow :  but  ftanding  thin  on  the 
ground,  the  heads  will  be  well  filled  \\'ith  feed.  Thefe  fields 
are  kept  up  the  next  year,  till  the  feed  is  coUeSed.  When 
above  one  half  of  tlie  field  has  changed  .its  colour  by  the  dry. 
ing  of  the  clover  heads,  then  begin  to  colleft  tiaem  ;  which  is 
done  by  a  marhine  drawn  by  a  horfe  and  guided  by  a  man 
or  boy,  who  will  collc<fl  from  the  field  by  this  means,  the 
heads  of  clover  growing  on  five  acres,  in  one  day.  I'hc 
machine  (fee  the  plate)  is  an  open  box.  of  about  4  feet  fqua& 


88  CLOVER. 

A  box  for  fowing  clover  feed  on  flat  wheat  beds 
(rather  than  ridges)  five  and  an  half  feet  wide,  ex- 

clufive 

at  the  bottom,  and  about  2  feet  high  on  three  fides.  The 
forepart  is  open ;  and  on  this  part  are  fixed  fingers,  fimilar 
to  the  fingers  of  a  cradle,  about  three  feet  long,  and  fo  near 
together  as  to  break  off  the  heads  from  the  clover  ftalks, 
which  are  taken  between  thofe  fingers.  The  heads  are  thrown 
back  into  the  box,  as  the  horfe  walks  on.  The  box  is  fixed 
on  an  axle-tree,  fuppcrted  by  two  fniall  wheels  about  two  feet 
diameter.  Two  hraidles  Ire  fixed  to  the  box  behind,  by 
which  the  man  or  boy  at  the  fame  time  he  guides  tlie  horfe, 
lowers  or  raifes  the  fingers  of  the  machine,  fo  as  to  take  off 
all  the  heads  from  the  grafs  ;  and  often  as  the  box  gets  fuU 
of  heads,  they  are  thro\vn  out,  and  the  horfe  goes  on  again. 
This  machine  is  feldom  ufed  to  colleci:  from  the  fecond  crop. 
Thofe  who  do  not  own  one,  fuppofe  tlie  expenfe  of  hiring 
with  the  lofs  of  feed  trod  down,  nearly  equal  to  the  expenfe 
of  mowing  die  fecond  crop.  On  rich  lands,  ordinarily,  no 
feed  comes  of  the  firft  crop.  If  the  land  is  lightly  manured 
or  crherwife  very  good,  the  firil  crop  of  grafs  is  fo  tkkk  that 
it  yields  no  feed  worth  gatliering :  but  the  fecond  crop  being 
fhorter  and  thinner  is  commonly  well  feeded.  Sometimes, 
indeed,  ccnfiderable  quantities  of  feed  are  gathered  from  the 
firil  crop,  on  land  where  wheat  is  cut  the  feme  year :  the 
ftubble  preventing  the  clover  from  growing  too  thick  for  pro- 
ducing feed.  The  fecond  crop  of  grafs  in  good  land  is  mow- 
ed fo  high  as  to  cut  off  the  heads  of  clover,  and  as  little  of 
the  grafs  as  pofijble.  A  mm  in  this  manner  will  mow  1  or 
3  acres  a  day.  The  time  of  mowing  is  when  at  lealt  one 
half  of  the  heads  become  dried.  It  is  raked  immediately  in- 
to fmall  h:r,pi  or  cocks.  la  what  manner  foever  collected,  aU 
cught  to  be  put  into  fuch  heaps  in  the  field,  and  there  expof- 
e4  that  the  hulks  may  rot  (about  tliree  weeks)  or  otherwilg 


CLOVER.  fifcj 

clufive  of  the  water  or  opening  furrow,  feven  feet 
inclufive,  was  made  of  light  half  inch  boards,  for  the 
fides,  bottom,  and  partitions.  It  was  feven  feet 
long,  five  or  fix  inches  wide,  that  the  feed  lying  thin 
may  eafily  fliift  about  and  not  prefs  heavily  on  the 
outlet  holes.*     It  was  three  Inches  deep,  and  divided 

into 

the  feed  will  be  got  out  with  great  difficulty.  Attention  is 
to  be  paid  to  the  heaps,  left  they  rot  too  much  next  to  the 
ground.  If  much  rain  falls,  the  heaps  are  to  be  turned. 
When  the  heaps  aie  fufficiently  rotted  and  dry,  known  by 
rubbing  fome  heads  in  the  hand,  cart  them  into  the  barn ; 
and  afterwards  tlirafh  out  on  the  barn  floor,  and  clean  with 
a  wire  riddle.  It  was  an  extraordinary  quantity  of  feed  tliat 
I  once  kncXv  produced  i  bufhel  and  4  quarts  from  ;j  of  an 
acre  ;  equal  to  44  bufliels  an  acre." 

*  The  7  feet  lands  were  preferred  to  54  feet  lands  which 
had  been  before  ufcd  (the  farm  a  very  level,  flrong  wheat 
foil).  The  clearing  out  or  water  furrows  were  included  both 
in  the  7  feet  and  the  54  feet  lands.  After  making  a  number  , 
of  inftruclive  experiments  on  eleven  acres  ;  of  wheat  harroiv- 
ed  in  and  compared  with  v>'!icat  at  the  fame  time  plowed  m ; 
of  wheat  fown  on  a  broad  kve/t  on  round  ridges  of  varioi^ 
heights,  and  on  flat  beds  having  deep  parting  furrows,  the 
ridges  and  bed§  with  their  water  furrows  being  7  feet  wide, 
and  running  fome  N.  and  S.  others  E.  and  W.  I  clearly  pre- 
ferred hds  to  ridges  ;  becaufe  it  is  immaterial  in  what  direc- 
tion they  lie,  the  fun  fliining  equally  on  the  whole  horizontal 
furface  of  tJie  beds ;  becaufe  the  foil  being  alike  in  quality  on 
the  whole  of  the  ied^  the  wheat  grew  equally  well  from  edge 
to  edge ;  becaufe  tlierefore,  in  reaping,  the  wheat  v  as  better 
fttved.  there  not  being  fliort  wheat  as  on  the  edges  of  ilu^cs  j 


90  CLOVER. 

into  feven  parts,  each  divifion  or  receptacle  having 
two  holes  bored  through  the  bottom,  half  an  inch 
diameter,  and  placed  diagonally.  The  holes  were 
finged  with  a  hot  iron  rod  to  fmooth  them.  Square 
pieces  of  ftrong  writing  paper,  fany  gummed  paper) 
were  pailed  over  the  holes,  on  the  infide  of  the  box. 
A  hole  was   burnt,  with  coarfe  knitting  needles, 

through 

■zad  becaufe  the  furrows  being  opened  deep  the  greateft  rains 
5)refendj'  glided  into  the  furrows  and  were  by  tliem  conveyed 
mto  the  main  drains  of  this  flat  land,  vsithout  ever  drowning 
or  fcalding  the  growing  wheat,  or  hardening  the  ground  on 
the  fl.it  led:.  Upon  the  ridges  E.  and  W.  the  wheat  on  the 
Borth-iide  was  inferior  to  that  on  the  fouth-fide.  This  of  the 
ridges  raifed  fomething  higher  than  is  common.  On  the 
higheft  ridges,  which  were  in  the  extreme  for  a  ftiong  con- 
trail:, the  wheat  on  the  north-fide  was  nearly  all  dead,  in  the 
^ring.  In  ridges  the  beft  foil  is  heaped  in  the  middle  ;  and 
the  thimier  foil  at  the  edges  gave  fhort  ftraw  and  mean  grain, 
noxh  whereof  v.'as  loft  in  reaping  and  gathering.  The  ridges 
formed  receptacles  of  rain  which  were  angular  at  bottom, 
fo  that  rain  water  rofe  fuddenly  half  way  up  the  fides  of  the 
ridgey,  and  eventually  hardened  the  ground  on  them,  as  well 
as  drov.ned  or  fcalded  much  of  the  growing  wheat.  On 
riJges,  clover  ii  more  espofed  to  frofts,  winds,  and  wafting 
of  the  earth  away  from  the  plants,  than  when  on  flat  bed:  ; 
nor  is  it  fo  ads'antageouily  mowed.  My  beds  were  feparated 
by  deep  water  furrows,  fo:-med  by  a  double  mould  board 
plow  dipt  deep  by  the  power  of  only  two  horfes,  not  large, 
and  which  had  a  good  faare  of  the  Englifh  race  blood  in 
them.  This  mixt  breed  bear  heat  well,  are  brilk,  and  wil- 
^gly  exert  their  powers.     Plate  III.  fig.  8. 


CLOVER.  91 

through  each  paper;  and  trials  were  made  with  feed 
gently  fliook  in  the  box,  over  a  floor  or  carpet ;  and 
the  holes  are  enlarged  as  far  as  there  may  be  occa- 
fion  for  dropping  a  due  quantity  of  feed.  It  was 
ufed  for  fowing  turnip  feeds :  the  old  papers  being 
taken  off,  and  new  ones  pafled  on  j  and  then  holes 
burnt  fuitable  to  turnip  feeds.  At  about  a  third  of 
the  diflance  from  each  end  of  the  box  were  faften- 
ed  flrong  leathern  flraps ;  by  which  the  box  was 
held,  and  a  little  agitated  in  carrying  it  before  the 
feedfman,  in  a  dire£lion  croiTmg  the  beds,  whilfl  the 
feedfraan  walked  along  the  beds.     Plate  III.  fig.  5. 

The  only  comparative  experiment  made  by  me, 
of  clover  feed  fown  with  the  box  above  defcribed, 
againfl:  broad  cad  fowing,  was  thus :  In  the  moment 
when  a  feedfman  long  ufed  to  fow  clover  feed,  was 
fowing  feed  in  the  chaff  at  the  rate  of  isib  of  clean 
feed,  according  to  his  efumation,  clean  feed  was 
fowed  on  feveral  lands  or  ridges  of  growing  wheat, 
with  the  box.  After  fowing  about  coo  yards  in 
length,  the  feed  put  into  the  box  did  not  appear  re- 
duced in  quantity,  and  I  feared  it  \^'as  fown  too 
thin.  But  the  growth  from  the  box  fowing,  proved 
to  be  thicker  and  much  more  equally  diftant  than 
that  from  the  broad  caft,  and  the  plants  were  fufE- 
ciently  clofe.  Thefe  operations  left  the  feeds  on  the 
ground  of  the  field  of  wheat  without  any  means  ufed 
to  cover  them.     The  time  of  fowing  was  about  th^ 

middle 


9^  WHEAT    ON    CLOVER. 

middle  of  March,  whilfl:  there  were  yet  light  frofts. 
It  was  a  feafon  in  which  I  often  had  clover  feed 
Town  in  the  chaff,  and  left  if  uncovered,  without 
ever  experiencing  any  lofs  or  difappointment. 

When  clean  clover  feeds  are  fown  on  a  clean 
ground  and  harrowed  in,  numbers  are  fmothered 
tinder  fmall  lumps  of  earth  as  well  as  under  larger 
ones  :  not  fo  of  feed  left  on  the  ground  uncovered 
during  the  frosts^  in  March  rather  than  earlier.  It 
therefore  feems  proper  that  much  more  than  41b  an 
acre  fhould  be  fown,  when  the  feeds  are  to  be  co~ 
•uered* 

Wheat  on  Clover. 

The  language  of  Englilh  farmers  on  this  head  is, 
that  wheat  on  clover  is  to  be  fown  on  "  one  earth" 
— one  plowing.  To  conform  to  this  idea,  I  con- 
duced this  bufmefs  on  15  acres,  in  this  manner  : 

1 .  The  clover  having  been  cut  once  and  then  paf- 
tured,  though  not  clofe,  was  turned  in  deep  and  the 
furrows  laid  neat  and  clofe  by  a  plow. 

2.  The  v;heat  was  fowed,  broadcaft. 

3.   The 

*  Mr.  E.  is  lately  returned  to  America  from  a  fecond  vifit 
to  Ejigland,  and  is  confirmed  in  his  former  opinion  that  clo- 
ver is  better  in  Pennfylvania  than  in  England ;  merely,  as  he 
thinks,  from  the  foil  or  the  climate  of  America  being  mare 
i'mtaUle  to  iv     See  page  27. 


WHEAT     ON     CLOVER.  p-J 

3.  The  harrow  followed  twice,  in  the  uime  direc- 
tion in  which  the  clover  was  plowed  in. 

4.  The  fown  wheat  was  then  rolled  ;  though  roll- 
ing did  not  appear  to  be  neceffary. 

The  crop  flood  well  and  yielded  fatisfaftorily. 
It  grew  near  two  miles  from  my  other  field  wheat, 
on  a  foil  not  quite  fimilar  j  fo  that  a  jufl  comparifon 
could  not  be  made  between  them.  The  operations 
immediately  followed  each  other,  without  any  paufe. 
The  plow,  the  harrow,  the  feed,  &c.  were  all 
ready  on  the  fpot,    before  the  plow  proceeded.* 

Mr. 

*  Mr.  Macro's  experience  is  againft  this  tmmediate  fowin^ 
upon  plowing  in  tlie  clover  ;  and  his  experiments  were  repeat- 
ed; mine  ^Jingle  inftance,  which  proved  highly  fatisfadtory, 
in  general^  without  any  pointed  particulars  occurring  of  a  much 
fuperior  produce.  Mr.  Macro  gives  tlie  following  encourag- 
ing detail  of  his  praftice  and  fuccefs.  "  From  upwards  of 
•*  20  years  experience,"  he  fays,  "  I  am  of  opinion  that,  tlie 
•'  bed  way  of  fowing  clover  lands  with  wheat,  is  to  ploii>  the 
"  land  10  or  14  dayr  before  you  fozv  it,  that  the  land  may  have 
**  fome  time  to  get  dry,  and  after  rain  enough  to  make  it  dre6 
**  well,  lay  on  the  feed  in  September,  two  bufhels  an  acre^ 
*'  in  Odtober,  tliree  bufhels  an  acre ;  and  in  November,  fouj 
*•  bufliels  an  acre."  Thefe  quantities  of  feed  are  here  merif) 
tioned  from  Mr.  Macro,  for  the  entertainment  of  farmers  in 
America  ;  who  may  v-.onder  that  difference  of  climate  or  fqil, 
lliould  admit  of  fuch  diflFerence  in  the  qUvintities  fown  :  Ame.- 
rica,  three  pecks  to  a  bufliel  of  feed  : — England,  two  to  four 
bufhels,  an  acre  !  The  atmofphere  in  America  Ls  dry  in  com- 
parifpn  to  that  in  England ;  the  Englllh  atmofphere  abound-s 


94  WHEAT    ON     CLOVIIR. 

Mr.  Toung  was  requefted  in  Ireland,    to  inflruft 
the  farmers  of  that  country  in  proper  courfes  of 

crops 

more  in  humidity  than  the  American  ;  and  affords  drink  and 
with  it  food  to  more  plants  than  the  humidity  of  the  air  iiv 
America  can  beftow.  Jt  leems,  he  plows  in  tlie  clover  on  a 
fall  of  rain,  and  then  vraits  for  a  due  flate  of  the  ground. 
"  The  furrows,  he  continues  to  fay,  ought  not  to  be  more 
"  than  8  or  9  inches  broad  :  lefs  is  better  if  the  plow  turns 
"  them  well ;  and  the  two  lad  furrows  fhould  not  be  lapped 
*'  one  on  to  the  other,  but  plowed  fo  as  to  leave  a  fpace  of 
**  near  two  inches  between  them,  for  forae  feed  to  fall  in.  I 
"  am  at  a  lofs,  he  fays,  to  account  for  the  wheat  thriving  let- 
**  ter  on  lands  that  have  been  ploiced  fome  time,  than  it  does  on 
**'frej}j  plowed  lands  which  drefs  as  well  or  better  :  but  I  have 
•'  often  tried  both  ways  on  the  fame  lands,  and  always  found 
♦«  the  former  anfwer  befl."  i  An.  109.  I  conjecture  that  the 
clover  plants  being  buried,  and  the  wheat  fown  at  tne  fame 
time,  they  botli  ferment  and  run  into  heat  in  the  fam.e  mo- 
ment :  the  germ  then  fhoots  and  the  root  is  extremely  deli- 
cate and  tender  for  fome  days  ;  during  which  the  buned  herb- 
age obtains  its  highefl  degree  of  heat ;  which  added  to  the 
Internal  heat  of  the  germ  may,  though  only  {lightly,  check 
and  a  little  injure  the  delicate  fhoot  of  tlie  wheat.  In  fprout- 
hjg  barley  for  making  malt,  a  little  excefs  of  heat  in  the  bed, 
checks,  and  a  little  more  totally  flops  the  fprouting  or  growth> 
qf  the  roots.  Botli  modes,  give  crops  fuperior  to  what  are 
produced  from  wheat  fowed  On  fallow.  Farmers  may  weU 
try  both  methods,  for  determining  which  to  prefer ;  that  is, 
as  well  in  the  immediate  fowing,  on  plowing  in  the  clover,  aS 
in  the  mediod  of  fowing  not  till  10  to  14  days  after  having 
plowed  in  the  clover :  fuppofe  an  half  in  each  way.  Botji 
Siodes  are  exgellent,     la  letting  the  foil  rell  10  to  14  days 


WHEAT    ON     CLOVBR.  95 

crops.     In  direfting  them  how  to  fow  wheat  oil 
clover,   he  fays  j  "  The  clover  is  to  be  well  plowed 

in, 

an  opening  Is  given  to  heavy  rains  confelidating  and  leaving 
it  in  an  inferior  ftate  for  receiving  the  wheat  feed.  If  rain 
falls  after  burying  the  clover,  and  before  fowing  the  wheat, 
it  may  fometimes  be  neceffary  to  wait  for  the  ground  becom- 
ing only  moift,  rather  than  fow  when  it  is  wet  and  heavy. 
If  the  farmer  plows  in  the  clover  when  the  ground  is  dry,  ht 
may  then  choofe  to  wait  for  rain  before  he  fows.  Though 
for  tliis  reafon  alone,  he  need  not  v/ait.  I  have  found  it  gene- 
rally fafe  to  fow  during  a  drought,  when  the  foil  is  very  dry : 
but  not  when  a  light  rain  has  fallen  on  tlie  very  dry  ground. 
In  the  former  cafe  the  feed  is  fafe  till  a  rain  falls,  which  is 
ufually  in  plenty  after  a  drought :  the  feed  now  quickly 
grow^s  up :  in  the  other  cafe  it  is  flightly  damped,  and  it 
fwells  ;  but  the  moifture  is  fo  foon  and  totally  evaporated  as 
to  leave  the  feed  to  dry-rot  and  perifli.  There  may  hav& 
been  fome  peculiarity  in  Mr.  Macro's  foil :  yet  it  probably 
was  but  a  light  foil,  little  liable  to  be  hardened  in  lo  to  14 
days  ;  as  on  a  rain  ftrong  wheat  land  would.  Farmer  Kit- 
yogg,  the  Swifs,  fays  that  -zukiai  ftoots  ftrongeft  when  there  is 
an  interval  between  the  time  of  plowing  and  fowing  ;  but  that 
larky  is  mofl;  vegetative  when  fown   immediately  after  tlw 

plow." Of  all  tlie  modes  of  fowing  wheat,  I  am  ftrcmg>- 

ly  perfuaded  that  in  clujiers  it  gives  the  beft  crops.  A  num.- 
ber  of  experiments  made  by  me  are  the  foundation  of  this 
opinion.  I'hefe  experiments  were  made  at  Wye  in  Maryland. 
There  I  invented  a  fimple  flrong  machine  which  dropt  5  or  6 
grains  of  wheat  in  each  clufter  on  above  8  acres.  The  cluflers 
were  7  inches  apart  in  the  rows ;  and  the  rows  were  about  gr 
inches  from  each  other.  A  horfe  on  each  fide  of  a  bed  walked 
in  the  water  furrow^  and  fowed  an  enure  bed  in  3  rows  a:  a 


95  .  WHEAT     ON     CLOVER, 

ill,  with  an  even,  regular  furrow  j   and  the  wheat 
iown  and  harrowed  well." 

One 

time.  A  light  pole  extended  between  the  horfes,  from  th» 
neck  of  one  to  that  of  the  other.  Accounts  of  fome  of  die 
experiments  were  publilhed  in  the  Columbian  Magazine  :  and 
it  appeared  from  them  that  as  far  as  y  grains  in  a  clufter, 
(being  no  further  tried  by  me)  and  from  Mr.  Singleton  s  ex- 
periments, made  at  the  fame  time  in  Talbot,  as  far  as  15 
grains  in  each  duller,  tlie  produce  in  wheat  was  prog^efllvely 
the  better.  At  that  time  I  had  never  tried  wheat  fown  on 
clover  plowed  in  :  but  the  machine  was  perfecHy  adapted  to 
cluucring  wheat  on  ground  in  that  (late.  The  follov.'ing 
mode  of  fowing  and  cultivating  wheat  and  clover  may  be 
introduced.  Clover  is  to  be  plowed  in  deep  and  the  furrow 
neatly  turned.  On  this  is  dra%vn  by  a  horfe  walking  in  the 
water  furrow  on  each  fide  the  bed,  a  machine  which  fhould 
open  the  ground  about  two  inches  deep  in  rows  8  inches  apart, 
and  in  the  rows  drop  feed  wheat  in  clu  Iters,  each  clufter  con- 
fifting  of  8  or  10  grains,  at  6  inches  apart,  equal  to  about 
a  bulhei  to  an  acre.  The  whole  bed  is  finiihed  in  the  horfes 
walking  once  through  the  furrows.  In  November,  a  Ihim  of 
feveral  blades  or  hoes  6  or  7  inches  wide,  and  fixed  in  frame 
ihould  cut  the  ground  between  the  S  inch  intervals  of  ground} 
•which,  cutting  up  the  weeds  and  ftirring  the  ground,  would 
leave  it  in  good  condition  till  March  or  early  April ;  whci> 
die  {him  fhould  again  clean  and  ftir  the  ground,  and  eradi- 
cate the  very  injurious  Mav-weed  and  (hepherd's  purfe  ;  and 
^t  the  fame  time  with  the  clover  feed  box  and  feed  on  the 
^rame  of  the  fhim,  by  jogging  t!ie  box  the  clover  feed  would 
be  fowed,  immediately  after  the  ihim.  This  alio  is  perform- 
ed by  the  horfes  walking  in  and  being  confined  precifely  by 
the  water  furrows.    A  light  barrow  or  rake  may  be  attached 


WHEAT    ON    CLOVER.  97 

One  of  my  neighbours  intending  to  fow  wheat  on 
clover,  plowed  up  the  clover  a  week  or  two  before 
feeding  time ;  and  then  gave  it  a  fecond  plowing, 
acrofs,  and  fowed  wheat  on  it :  whether  the  wheat 
was  plowed  or  harrowed  in,  I  know  not.*  Vail 
numbers  of  roots  of  the  clover  were  turned   up, 

G  and 

to  It.  In  cluftering  wheat  endeavour  to  drop  the  feeds  all  in 
a  heap,  in  contadl  witli  each  other  if  it  can  be.  They  thus 
proved  greatly  fuperior,  dropt  in  fmall  holes  made  by  a  dib- 
ble, to  the  fame  number  of  grains  fpread  within  circles  of 
three  inches,  the  centres  whereof  were  7  inches  from  the  cen- 
tres of  other  like  cluilers ;  when  the  dibbled  holes  were  only 
6  inches  apart,  Befides  fowing  clover  feed  in  the  moment 
of  fliimming,  gyjJfum,  lime,  or  lotten  dung,  may  alfo  be 
drfperfed  as  tlie  machine  proceeds  in  fhimming,  thus :  In  7 
fields  the  rotation  confifts  of, 

I   Roots,  the  ground  dunged  beforehand. 

I  Spring  grain  ;  In  fowing  it.  In  the  fame  Inftant  and  mo- 
tion, clover  feed  is  fcattered  with  It  from  the  box,  and 
drew  on  each  acre,  lime    12  bufh.     gypfum  i  bufh. 

I   Clover 

I   Wheat  and  clover  feed,  with  12       ....       i 

I   Clover 

I   Rye  or  Barley  and  clover  feed,  with  12        .       t 

I   Clover  or  Pulfe 

7  Fields 


•  Had  not  tjiis  been  plowed  a  fecond  time,  it  would  have 
been  preclfely  in  Mr.  Macro's  method  :  but  the  fecond  plow- 
ia^  overfet  tl.e  good  work. 


9^  WHEAT    ON    CLOVER. 

and  left  (landing  erecl  above  ground,  all  over  the 
field.  Here  was  unneceflary  labour,  an  ufelefs  and 
even  injurious  plowing,  by  which  the  manure  from 
thofc  fubftantial  roots  and  a  part  of  the  green  her- 
bage,   was  lod  to  the  crop  of  wheat. 

Another  neighbour  proceeded  thus,  in   fowing 
wheat  on  clover  : 

1.  Plowed  in  the  clover,  deep. 

2.  Harrowed. 

3.  Rolled. 

4.  Sowed  wheat. 

5.  Plowed  it  in,  Jhallow. 

6.  Harrowed  it,  in  the  fame  dire^ion.* 

BEANS. 

*  Whllft  the  former  copy  of  tliis  was  at  prefs,  an  account 
of  the  eiFed  of  this  experiment  was  expeded  from  the  experi- 
menter ;  but  I  was  obliged  to  fpeak  of  it  from  memory, 
which  proved  to  be  incorred,  and  that  part  is  now  omitted. 
Mr.  Singleton,  of  Talbot,  Avalking  in  his  wheat  field,  was  fur- 
prifed  to  find  the  growing  wheat  much  fuperior  on  the  meaner 
foil  of  the  field ;  it  being  higher  with  ftronger  ftraw  and 
larger  heads.  This  part  of  the  field  had  been  in  clover,  which 
was  twice  moived,  and  in  Augufl  broke  up,  and  fowed  with 
die  wheat  the  tirfl:  of  September.  The  other  part  had  the 
clover  p'oived  tip  in  Marchy  for  tobacco  :  but  tobacco  being  laid 
afide,  this  ground  was  then  repeatedly  plaived  in  the  fmntncr  as 
a  fallow,  and  fown  alfo  the  firll  of  the  fame  September,  with 
wheat :  from  which  it  yielded  14I  bufliels  an  acre  ;  when  th& 
part  twice  mown  and  hut  once  plowed  gave  2\\  bufhels  an  acre. 
The  difference  is  great :  to  which  add  the  yalue  of  tlie  clover 


BEANS.  99 


BEANS. 


Let  not  the  novelty  or  labour  of  fowing  beans  in 
field  hufbandry  be  made  a  difficulty  to  the  applica- 
tion of  them  in  a  rotation  of  crops.  They  may  be 
dropt  by  hand.  Bat  a  fimple  and  cheap  machine 
may  be  made  for  dropping  them  in  clullers,  as 
quick  as  a  horfe  drawing  it  can  walk.  Two  wheels 
made  of  inch  plank  doubled,  turn  an  axis  of  about 
5  inches  diameter,  having  notches  on  one  line  round 
it,  from  each  of  which  3  or  4  beans  are  difcharged 
at  the  fame  moment  into  a  furrow  opened  by  a 
plowlhare  or  wooden  coulter,  the  ground  being 
firft  well  prepared.  A  (lave  at  the  tail  of  the  ma- 
chine may  ferve  to  cover  the  beans,  if  occafion  : 
though  the  gr6und,  being  mellow,  always  tumbled 
in  on  the  beans,  with  me.  If  the  wheels  be  two 
feet  diameter,  they  will  have  a  circumference  of  75 
inches,  which  divided  by  icl-  inches,  give  7  for 
the  number  of  notches  round  the  axis,  for  drop- 
ping the  beans,  in  cluflers,  10  ^  inches  apart  in  the 
rows.  With  fuch  an  inflrument  beans  were  drilled 
for  me,   at  Wye.* 

G  3  Neit 

crops  and  the  favlng  of  plowings.  They  abundantly  prove 
the  fuperiorltT  of  wlieat  on  one  earth.  Mr.  Singldon  is  to  bs 
depended  on,  and  keeps  a  diary  cf  his  farming  bulmefs. 

*  Hufbandmen  have  frequent  occafion  to  difcover  the  dia- 
meters oi   circHTOforenccs  as  well  as  the  circumferences  of 


lOO  NEW     CULTURE    OF 

Nejv  Practices  in  the  Culture  of  Maize  and 
Wheat. 

The  common  modes  of  cultivating  the  various 
corns,  are  every  where  familiar  :  but  the  following 
practices  and  obfervations  are  upon  new  modes,  or 
particular  branches  of  the  bufinefs. 

In  Maryland,  mofl:  of  the  wheat  fown  is  amongfl 
maize,  whilfl  it  is  ripening  in  September.  The 
farmer  is  urged  to  fow  wheat  early,  for  avoiding 
damage  from  rmt,  and  from  storms.  A  ilorra  upon 
maize  having  the  tops  on,  would  proflrate  or  en- 
tangle the  tall  ftalks,  fo  as  to  render  plowing  in  the 
feed  wheat  difficult  and  lefs  perfefl ;  and  the  farmer 
dares  not  cut  off  the  tops  till  after  the  wheat  is  fown 
and  covered ;  becaufe  in  plowing  in  the  feed,  the 
fwingletrees  catching  and  bending  down  the  ftalks 
and  then  fuddenly  letting  them  go  with  a  fpring, 
throw  off  the  ears  of  corn  with  fome  force ;  which 
with  the  tops  and  taffcls  on  would  be  confiderablj 
refilled.     Another  mifchief  is  common,  as  well  from 

horfehoing 

diameters.  In  common,  for  finding  a  circumference,  the 
diameter  is  multiplied  by  3  :  but  it  is  more  exactly  afcertain- 
ed  by  multiplying  with  3. 141 6.  The  difference  on  5  inches 
diameter  is  near  4^ths  of  an  inch;  it  being  as  15.7  to  i^. 
The  circumference  kno'RTi,  to  find  the  diamsier,  muhiply  the 
circumference  by  '31831. 


MAIZE    AND     WHEAT.  lol 

horfehoing  the  maize  as  plowing  in  the  wheat, 
which  is  that  the  roots  are  torn  or  cut  by  the  plow- 
Ihare. 

For  avoiding  the  above  meniioned  mischiefs^  and 
that  the  feed  wheat  ihould  be  covered  fokly  by  plows  ; 
and  alfo  that  the  wheat  fhould  grow  on  perfectly 
fiat  beds,  and  the  plowfhares  work  partly  above 
the  mat  of  fibrous  roots  of  the  maize,  I  introduced 
the  following  praftices  in  my  maize  and  wheat  cul- 
ture, which  was  on  very  large  fields. 

Obferving  much  irregularity  in  the  (landing  of 
maize  in  the  rows,  which  prevented  plows  from 
working  fufficiently  near  to  the  plants  for  covering 
the  feed  wheat,  and  that  much  was  left  for  the  ex- 
penfive  and  often  bad  work  of  handhoes  to  perform, 
I  caufed  the  maize  feed,  after  lifting  and  croiling, 
to  be  carefully  placed  clofe  to  the  landfide  of  the 
furrows  ;  not  dropt  in  the  carelefs  fcattering  man- 
ner ufual.  The  maize  thus  grew  very  ftraight  in 
lines,  and  admitted  the  plows  to  pafs  near  the  plants. 
Thefe  being  up  and  a  little  grown,  the  defign  was 
formed  of  dire<fting  the  firfl  or  finger-like  roots  to 
dip  deeper  than  common  before  the  lateral  roots 
fhould  flrike  out.  The  foil  was  plowed  full  five  inches 
deep  ;  and  turned  at  firfl  from  the  maize,  on  both 
fides  of  the  plants :  but  they  being  then  very 
young,    it  was  neceffary  to  leave  more  (hoolder  or 

bed 


I02  NEW     CULTURE    OF 

bed  to  them  than  was  defired,   to  avoid  burying 
them  with  the  earth  falling  back :    therefore  the 
plow,    on  having  worked  through  the  field,   imme- 
diately returned  to   the  place  where  it  began  to 
plow  from  the  plants,    and  it  now  took  oiF  as  much 
more  earth,  flill  turning  lifrom  them,  on  each  fide, 
as  they  could  well  bear  without  danger  of  their  totr 
tering.     All  now  rested  lo  or  12  days,  even  in  th? 
dried  weather,   with  intention  that  the  lateral  roots 
fliould  take  their  direction  under  the  artificial  fur- 
face  of  the  ground  formed  by  the  plowlhare.     The 
The  plows  next  turned  a  furrow,    on  each  fide  of 
the  rows,   to  the  plants,    through  the  whole  field  ; 
and  then  plowed  through  the  balks  or  whole  of  the 
intervuls  not  before  plowed  or  horfehoed.     The 
handhoes  performed  as  ufual,   except  that  hilling 
was  wholly  forbidden.     Soon  as  plowing  through 
the  intervals  was  finifhed,    the  plows  again  plowed 
from  the  plants :  and  fo  repeatedly  continued  to 
plow  through  the  intervals  alternately  from  ^nd  to 
the  rows  and  plants ;   whereby  another  important 
purpofe  was  anfwered :  the  keeping  the  whole  field 
levels    for  growing  the  wheat  on  flat  beds,   and 
avoiding  ridges  or  beds  at  all  rounded.     The  alter- 
nate \)\oyN\ng?.  from  and  to  were  continued  even  dur- 
ing the  forming  and  filling  of  the  grain,  as  far  as 
was  requifite  for  keeping  the  ground  clean  and  ftir- 
red  to  receive  the  feed  wheat ;   and  it  was  a  continu- 
al  work  to  the   plows,  in  which  the  plowfhares 

palTed 


MAIZE    AND    WHEAT.  103 

paffed  rather  over  the  roots  which  fpread  and 
ran  deeper  than  if  they  had  taken  their  firfl:  flart 
under  the  common  furface  of  the  earth,  and  there- 
fore they  were  not  torn  up,  or  the  plants  fired  or 
checked  in  their  growth.  Thus  at  the  time  of  fow- 
ing  wheat  the  ground  was  fo  perfeftly  clean,  fine 
and  Hght,  that  for  feveral  years  fucceflively,  half 
a  bufhel  of  wheat  fufficed  for  feed  to  an  acre.* 
This  thin  fowing  occaiioned  fome  attention  by  other 
farmers,  and  a  neighbour  came  to  fee  the.  feedfmen 
at  work.  He  examined  them  feparately,  they  were 
two ;  then  meafured  the  diftance  of  the  maize  plants 
from  each  other  ;  faw  a  portion  of  the  feed  meafur- 
ed and  fowed  ;  then  counted  the  clufters  of  plants 
that  the  portion  of  feed  extended  to  when  fown ; 
and  he  feemed  fatisfied.  He  was  not  a  man  of 
many  words,  and  I  afked  no  queftions.  Great 
advantages  were  obtained  in  cutting  off  the  maize 
tops  before  fowing  the  wheat ;  which  in  common 
would  be  improper,  where  wheat  is  to  be  fowed  on 
maize.  That  the  fwingle-trees  might  not  hang  on 
the  maize-flalks,   the  rope  traces  were  half  buried 

in 

*  The  ftouteft,  moll  promifmg  crop  of  wheat  I  ever  had 
growing  was  of  200  acres,  from  a  fmall  fradion  lefs  tlian 
half  a  bufhel  of  {t^di  per  acre.  Whilft  this  very  flattering 
crop  -vas  in  head,  ruft  dindfcab  (empty  ears)  reduced  tlie  crop 
to  a  very  trifle.  The  ground,  to  admit  of  fuch  very  tliitl 
fowing,  had  been  often  and  almoft  inccffantly  plowed,  light- 
ened, and  made  clean. 


104  NEW    CULTURE    OF 

in  a  groove  cut  in  the  ends  of  the  fwingle-trees,  by 
which  the  corn  ftalks  were  more  gently  glided  off. 

Light  one  horfe  plows  covered  the  feed  wheat 
clofe  to  the  rows  of  maize,  without  any  want  of 
handhoes :  but  a  rake  followed  and  levelled  the 
ridge,  here  and  there  formed  by  the  one  horfe 
plows  lapping  the  oppofing  furrows  which  ought 
not  to  be  lapped.  For  chopping  round  (lumps,  a 
handhoe  was  ufed.  The  light  plows  went  only  a 
bout  or  two,  next  to  the  matze  plants :  then  follow- 
ed the  two  horfe  plows,  for  covering  the  refl:  of  the 
feed  ;  and  thefe  left  a  narrow  balk,  which  the  dou^ 
ble  mould  board  plow  fplit.  This  was  pleafingly 
performed  :  the  double  mould  board  plow,  dipping 
deep,  fliouldered  up  the  earth  on  each  fide  and  gave 
fquare  edges  to  the  beds,  leaving  them  with  flat  fur- 
faces,  and  deep  furrows  as  drains  for  receiving  hea- 
vy rains  as  they  fall  and  gently  glide  off  the  beds,* 

My  maize  was  planted  four  feet  apart  in  the  rows, 
with  feven  feet  intervals  betweeij  the  rows ;  which 
gave  beds  of  wheat,  after  deducting  the  water  fur- 
rows, full  5  J  feet  wide.     Concerning  beds  and  wa- 
ter 

*  The  one  horfe  plows  might  have  performed  the  whole ; 
except  opening  and  finifning  the  water  furrows  and  edging 
Vip  the  fides  of  the  beds,  which  no  plow  elie  than  tlie  double 
mould  board  plow,  could  well  perform  :  the  foil  a  clav-loanij 
ypr)'  level,  and  without  (lone  or  pebble. 


MAIZE     AND     WHEAT. 


105 


ter  furrows^  fee  before,  page  88.  The  maize  fo 
planted  in  fquares  of  4  by  7  feet,  takes  28  fquare 
feet  to  each  clufler  of  maize  plants,  commonly  call- 
ed hills  of  corn,  bu.t  which  in  the  above  method  of 
culture  has  no  hill ;  and  there  are  1550  of  them  on 
an  acre.  By  a  fmgle  dip  of  the  double  mould  board 
plow  and  progreffing  along,  the  edges  of  the  wheat 
beds  are  formed  and  finifhed,  the  water  furrow  is 
left  deep  and  clean  for  receiving  from  the  flat  beds 
and  carrying  off  redundant  rain,  and  for  conveying 
as  funnels  frefli  nourilhing  air  to  the  growing  wheat 
in  the  fpring,  and  till  the  grain  is  ripe.  When 
ihimming  wheat  in  autumn  and  fpring  fliall  be  prac- 
tifed,  the  water  furrows  will  be  as  paths  to  the 
horfes ;  which  afTure  precifion  in  the  work. 

Near  the  end  of  September  or  early  in  Ocf^ober, 
the  wheat  plants  being  up,  with  fliarpened  hoes  the 
maize  plants  were  chopt  off  clofe  to  the  ground, 
without  injuring  the  wheat,  even  although  a  plant  of 
wheat  was  here  and  there  cut  up.  Two  of  the  peo- 
ple take  a  row  between  them  ;  and  bear  off  the  com 
and  ftalks  from  the  middle  of  the  rows  to  the  head- 
lands :  one  perfon  carries  to  one  end  and  the  other 
to  the  other  end  of  the  rows.  There  on  the  head- 
lands the  flalks  and  all  were  itt  up  in  conical  heaps, 
with  the  buts  on  the  ground.  They  remained  thus, 
airy,  in  not  too  large  heaps,  till  the  corn  was  cured 
on  the  (talks ;  and  then  the  ears  with  hu/ks  on  were 

fcpai-a- 


lo6  NEW    CULTURE    OF 

feparated  from  the  flalks  and  carted  to  the  fodder 
houfe,  or  hollow  rick,  made  from  the  maize  tops, 
which  were  early  cut  for  avoiding  imprellions  from 
cquinoftial  florms.  The  naked  (talks  were  carted 
to  the  farm-yard,  for  litter,  at  leifure ;  the  blades 
having  been  dripped  off  in  the  field,  before  chop- 
ping off  the  flalks. 

In  making  experiments,  it  is  well  to  have  forae- 
variety,  progrefling  from  fmaller  deviations  into  ex- 
tremes :  by  which  the  bell  medium  is  to  be  afcer- 
tained,  and  the  utmoft  that  the  plants  can  bear  is 
difcovered.  I  had  tried  tops  of  maize  cut  off,  foon 
as  the  taffels  and  ears  had  fliot  our,  leaving  here 
and  there  a  taffel  for  perfefting  their  farina ;  and 
thought  the  grain  rather  better  for  it.  I  had  alfo 
cxpofed  infant  plants  eight  to  ten  or  twelve  days, 
to  drought  and  fcorching  fun,  {landing  on  parched 
narrow  ridges,  and  then  continually  plowed  the 
ground  to  and  from  the  plants,  even  whilft  they 
were  in  ears  and  grain  filling,  without  any  injury 
to  the  corn.  Now  it  was  determined  to  try  the 
cffeft  of  plowing  fo  clofe  to  the  young  maize  plants 
as  to  rub  the  plowfhare  along  the  mafs  of  roots, 
turning  the  tdxxhfrom  them,  on  both  fides,  and  let 
them  (land  expofed  to  the  fun  and  wind  fome  days. 
It  was  in  a  very  heavy  flrong  piece  of  ground  which 
the  horfes,  flraddling  the  rows,  plowed  thus  and 
turned  the  earth  from  the  plants,  on  both  fides,  fo 

that 


MAIZE    AND    WHEAT.  I07 

that  the  plants  four  or  five  inches  high,  generally 
tottered,  and  a  few  were  plowed  up.  They  flood 
fo  eight  days  in  very  hot,  dry  weather.  The  earth 
was  then  plowed  to  them :  and  from  and  to  them, 
alternately  jufl  as  the  reft  of  the  field,  from  this 
period.  This  was  of  four  rov/s.  When  near  five 
feet  high,  fliewing  the  field  to  a  neighbour,  I  a/ked 
if  he  perceived  any  difference  between  the  firft  four 
rows  (the  above  mentioned)  and  the  reft  of  the 
maize  in  that  cut,  which  was  a  fmall  one.  He 
paufcd,  but  concluded  that  if  there  was  any  differ- 
ence, the  four  rows  were  rather  the  beft.  To  me 
there  appeared  no  difference.  The  whole  had  been 
plowed  from  and  to  the  plants,  but  not  fo  clofc  as 
the  four  rows. 

At  other  times  I  had  ftripped  blades  bolder  than 
common:  and  now  about  150  hills  of  maize  were 
pitched  on  for  ftripping  the  blades  and  cutting  ofF 
the  tops  at  a  time  when  the  corn  was  not  hard,  but 
here  and  there  might  be  fome  nearly  foft  enough  for 
roafting  ears.  Injury  was  apprehended  from  this 
feverity :  but  the  value  of  fo  few  hills  of  corn  was 
difregarded,  when  it  was  fought  to  know  how  far 
the  maize  would  bear  fevere  treatment.  Beyond 
expeftation,  no  difference  was  obferved  between  this 
iind  the  reft  of  the  maize. 

HEMP. 


lo8  HEMP. 


HEMP. 


The  extenfive  ufefulnefs  of  hemp,  the  little  inter- 
ference of  its  culture  with  the  other  work  of  farmers 
in  America  ;  and  when  ivater-rotted  daily  as  it  is  pul- 
led, the  eafe  with  which  it  is  prepared  for  rope,  as 
well  as  the  general  certainty  of  the  crop  with  a  good 
price,  led  me  to  prefer  it  to  other  uncommon -arti- 
cles of  crop.* 

Ground,  level  and  rather  low,  not  wet,  a  mellow 
loam,  whether  of  the  fandy  or  clayey  forts,  was 
preferred.  Thefc  foils  are  not  cold  ;  and  when  well 
cleaned  and  prepared  by  plowings  and  a  due  quan- 
tity of  manure,  are  in  condition  to  yield  ma?iy  re- 
peated crops  of  hemp  j  a  little  manure  being  now 

and  then  added.f 

Farmers 

*  My  hemp  harvefts  at  Wye  in  Maryland,  \rere  always 
after  tl^ofe  of  wheat,  and  before  feeding  v-inter  grain.  In 
England  they  inlerfeie  with  the  grain  harv^efts.  Between 
water-rotting,  daily  as  it  is  pulled^  and  the  fpreading  it  in  fields 
to  rot,  is  all  the  diflFerence  in  the  world :  the  former  is  dif- 
patched  in  a  few  days :  the  latter  requires  careful  turning 
once  or  twice  a  week,  for  a  number  of  weeks  ;  and  then  is 
found  draggling  or  tangled  :  but  ^vith  attention  it  is  gather- 
ed up  and  the  ftems  are  placed  in  fome  order.  In  America, 
hemp  and  flax  are  commonly  dry  before  they  are  fpread  to  be 
dew-rotted.  If  fpread  before  the  laft  of  September,  they  be- 
come fun-burnt,  red,  harfti,  and  dead. 

f  Mr.  Young  fpeaks  of  a  piece  of  ground  at  Hoxne  in 
Suffolk,  England,  \vhich  has  been  under  crops  of  hemp  for 
feventy  fucceffive  years. 


HEMP.  lop 


Farmers  without  experience,  if  not  alfo  without 
thought  on  the  fubjeft,  fay  their  lands  will  not  bring 
hemp.     Mod  kinds  of  foil  will  yield  good  crops  of 
it,  if  not  wet.      If  poor,  manure  them.      Every 
hufbandman  can  manure  and  cultivate  land  enough 
for  giving  him  rich  crops  of  hemp.     The  plowings 
for  reducing  ground  to  a  mellow  garden-like  ftate 
Ihould  be  many,  preceding  ihcjirst  fowing.     Every 
time   that   young   weeds    appear,   plow  them    in. 
When  the  ground  is  thus  well  cleared  of  the  feeds 
of  weeds,  then  fow  hemp-feed,  and, repeat  it  year 
after  year  on  the  fame  ground ;  giving  it  now  and 
then  a  little  manure  and  tzvo  autumnal  pickings  ;  and 
the  like  plowings  with  harrowings  in  the  next  fpring, 
immediately  before  fowing.     If  to  cultivate  an  acre 
thus  highly  fhould  deter  the  farmer,  let  him  at  firfl 
try  a  fourth  of  it ;    which  would  give  him  more 
than  he  would  want  of  traces,  leading  lines  and 
other  rope.     The  fpinning  and  working  it  up  into 
rope  would  be  mere  play :   but,   as  is  feen  below, 
making  as  much  hemp  as  he  can  for  market,  would 
yield  him  a  good  income.* 

April, 

•  The  tobacco  planter  thinks  nothing  of  cultirating  twen- 
ty acres  in  tobacco,  and  erecting  four  or  five  large  framed 
houfes  for  curing  it.  But  he  %vould  dart  at  a  propofal  that 
inftead  of  tobacco  he  fhould  cultivate  the  20  acres  in  hemp, 
although  it  would  require  but  one  fuch  houfe,  not  an  eighth 
ot  the  labour  and  attentions,  and  is  without  any  of  the  un- 
certaintjr.     It  is  ^  common  miaaLc  that  hemp  requires  lev 


no  HEMP. 

April,*  when  the  ground  is  raoift,  clean  and  mel- 
low, in  garden-like  condition  from  plowings  and 
harrowings,  is  the  time  for  fowing  and  lightly  har- 
rowing in  hemp  feed.  The  plants  then  foon  appear, 
and  rapidly  cover  and  flielrer  the  whole  furface  of 
the  ground ;  whereby  weeds  are  kept  under,  and 
immoderate  exhalation  is  prevented.  My  hemp  ne- 
ver fuifered  materially  from  drought  but  once,  and 
that  of  a  fowing  in  May,  which  grew  rather  thin. 
It  was  never  found  neceffary  to  weed  what  was  fown 
for  a  crop  ;  but  only  fuch  as  was  fown  thin  for  pro- 
ducing feed.  Sometimes  feed  was  faved  from  the 
margin  of  the  field,  where  the  plants  had  room  to 
branch,  and  were  coarfe  :  or  a  portion  was  fown  thin, 
for  giving  feed  :  or  flill  better,  plants  grew  equidif- 
tant  and  well  cultivated,  for  feed  alone. 

When  the  male  or  impregnating  plants  fliewed 
maturity  by  fome  change  in  their  colour,  and  by  the 
farina  or  duft  flying  off  from  the  bloffoms,  all  was 
pulled  up,  both  male  and  female  :  and  the  pulling  of 
every  day  was  put  into  a  fait  water  cove,  in  the 
evening  of  the  fame  day,  proraifcuoufly  bound  up 

in 

abound  or  rich  bottom  land.     Alnioft  any  land  that  is  not 
abfohitely  wet,  may  be  made  to  yield  good  crops. 

*  The  middle  to  the  end  of  April.  If  the  ground  is  not 
t77o}s!  when  the  feed  is  fowed  die  hemp  is  apt  to  come  up  and 
grow  unequally. 


HEMP.  Ill 

in  fmall  bundles,  and  funk  44^  feet  in  the  water,  in 
a  thick  fquare  bed.  On  the  third  day  it  was  infpeft- 
cd ;  and  from  the  third  to  the  fifth  it  was  enough 
rotted,  as  it  is  called.  In  examining  it,  with  finger 
and  thumb  fome  of  the  roots  were  broke,  ^f  they 
bent  or  were  tough,  it  was  not  enough  :  when  they 
fnapt  off  ihort  like  glafs,  it  was  enough :  but  the 
bark  alfo  was  tried.  The  hemp  was  then  taken  out 
of  the  water,  and  laid  Hoping  with  the  heads  down 
to  drain  till  morning :  for  it  was  ufually  taken  out 
in  the  evening.  In  the  morning  it  was  fpread,  and 
whilft  drying,  once  turned.  In  a  few  fair  days  it 
was  dry,  and  then  carted  to  an  old  tobacco- houfe, 
where  it  was  bulked  up  till  the  hurry  of  fecuring  the 
other  crops  was  over.*  It  was  broke  and  fwingled 
in  the  next  winter.  Some  of  it  was  made  into  ropes 
for  my  farms  :  the  reft  fold  to  rope-makers,  from 
the  fwingle.  The  rope  was  bright  and  ftrong,  and 
the  hemp  faid  to  be  of  a  quality  entitling  it  to  the 
bounty  then  offered  for  ivater-rotted  hemp.f 

A 

♦  For  want  of  houfe  room  it  may  be  flacked  n\  oblong 
Ricksy  topped  with  thatch  or  ftraw. 

i"  It  is  faid  tliat  botli  the  drefling  and  fpimiing  of  hemp  are 
beft  performed  in  a  damp  place.  It  is  inclined  to  tzvist  too 
much  in  fpinning.  Alfo  that  it  is  a  /efs  injury  to  the  hemp  to 
pull  the  plants  before  they  are  ripe  enough,  than  to  leave  them  tot 
lon^fiandtng  :  and  it  is  a  left  h:jury,  in  foak'ing  h:mp,  to  leave  it 
too  long  in  the  water  than  to  take  it  out  before  it  is  fufficiently 
foaked  (Uvi  or  running  water  is  meant  and  fpokc:n  of).     AvA 


112  HEMP. 


A  fmall  part  of  one  of  my  crops  of  hemp  vr2s  de^M 
rotted  :  which  was  fufficicntly  difgufling  to  forbid 
a  repetition  of  that  mode.  It  was  a  tedious  while 
on  the  ground.  Winds  blew  it  about  and  entangled 
it.  It  rotted  partially:  not  the  whole  of  the  fame 
fibre  alike.     Here  it  was  flrong  :  there  weak, 

^Vhere  there  is  only  a  ftreara  of  water,  it  might 
be  proper  not  to  place  the  hemp/;z  the  dream  j  but, 
digging  a  deep  oblong  receptacle,  let  a  fufficiency 
of  the  ftreara  pafs  through  it,  when  full,  on  one 
fide  of  the  tiatural  current.  There  rot  the  hemp  in 
clean  water  ;  which  fhould  conilantly  be  coming  into 
and  pafllng  through  the  pit,  in  a  degree  of  plenty 
for  preferving  the  water  from  corrupting  or  being 
ftagnant  j  but  not  fo  rapidly  as  to  fret  off  its  bark:* 

and 

it  is  afferted,  that  putting  the  clufters  containing  the  hemp 
feed  in  heaps,  to  Iweat  and  heat,  caujes  many  feeds  to  ripen. 

The  above  obfervations  on  hemp  are  taken  from  a  publica- 
tion in  London,  in  1790  :  in  which  the  reader  may  be  alarm- 
ed at  the  boldnefs  of  the  afiurance  refpefting  hemp  being  loBg 
left  in  ■R'ater  :  but  a  diftindion  is  to  be  taken  between  water 
Jiagnantf  where  it  would  rot ;  and  water  running  or  ali^yc,  m 
which  it  cannot  rot. 

*  The  operation  called  retting  of  hemp,  ought  to  avoid  erery 
tendency  to  rot  the  plant.  Water  when  pure  and  lively  does 
not  ret,  but  it  difohvt  a  vifcous  gumjny  fubftance  which  had 
bound  the  fibres  of  the  bark  together  and  to  the  body  of  the 
f4ant.     The  pareH  water  is  ths  beH  diffuktrit  of  fuch  vifcous 


Hemp.  21^ 

and  the  hemp  fliould  be  fecured  in  the  receptacle 
againfl:  torrents,  by  weights,  or  bars  croffing  the 
bed ;  and  by  the  receptacle  being  Iheltered  behind 
fome  point  or  artificial  barrier  or  fence. 

After  pulhng  the  hemp,  weeds  grew  up;  which 
were  reduced,  and  the  ground  was  left  in  clean  con- 
dition  till  the  fpring,  by  plowino-s. 

H  Having 

fubftances.  I  have  feen  hemp  which  had  been  rotted  in  ftag- 
nant  dirty  water ;  the  appearance  whereof  was  bad.  The 
hemp  I  rotted  in  cUar  Ude-'u.'ater,  had  a  light  ftraw  colour.  I 
fee  no  reafon  for  apprehending  damage  to  the  bark  or  firm 
part  of  the  hemp,  if  it  remains  in  the  running  or  liv:  luater  a 
week  after  it  is  proved  to  be  enough  foaked  for  break-ing  and 
dreffing.  It  probablj-  would  be  freer  fVom  the  gummy  mat- 
ter, and  would  break  and  hackle  eafier  and  better,  without 
being  weakened.  But,  let  experiment  be  made !  When  the  bed 
of  hemp  in  clean  Ihs  rjjaier  is  enough,  let  a  part  remain  in  the 
water  a  day  or  two  longer  ;  another  part  two  or  three  days, 
&c.  that  we  may  fee  tlie  effeft  of  its  being  continued  in  the  wa- 
ter till  different  periods  after  its  bark  is  commonly  enough  for 
being  ftripped.  The  water  muft  be  dive,  not  ftagnant.  Ex- 
periments carried  on  progrefllvely  till  in  the  extreme,  have 
their  ule. 

A  Mr.  jlntilizys,  if  hemp  is  put  \v\io  itngnant  v>-ater,  it  will 
be  enough  in  four  or  five  days :  if  in  running  water,  in  three 
or  four  days :  which  ftrongly  implies  die  fuperior  diffolving 
power  of  live  water,  and  that  the  operation  tStCt^jlh.thy,^  not 
r*tftnnrft 


114  HEMP. 

Having  no  raluute  of  the  quantity  of  feed  fawn, 
I  can  only  recommend  what  feems  beft.  But,  it 
greatly  depends  on  the  flate  of  the  ground,  and  the 
purpofes  for  which  the  crop  is  intended.  A  httle 
experience  will  afcertain  the  proper  quantity.  Tv.o 
bufhels  of  feed  to  an  acre,  I  believe  are  a  full  portion 
for  rope.  That  quantity  or  a  little  lefs  might  be 
about  what  I  fowed.*  It  is  faid  in  a  publication  by 
the  Bofton  Committee  of  Agriculture,  that  in  the 
common  method  of  fowing  by  broad  caft,  "  not  lefs 
than  three  bufliels  are  ufually  fowed,  and  fometimes 
more,  according  to  the  richnefs  of  the  foil." 

A  defign  was*  formed  by  way  of  experiment,  but 
not  put  in  practice,  of  fowing  the  hemp  feed  on  flat 
beds,  having  paths  between  them  from  w'hence  the 
hemp  plants  might  be  pulled,  half  v/ay  acrofs  the  bed, 
and  then  the  other  half;  with  intention  that  the  male 
hemp  fhould  be  pulled  and  water-rotted  alone,  leav- 
ing the  female  hemp  to  (land  longer,  which  its  de^ 
green  colour  and  thriving  appearances  feemcd  to  re- 
commend ;  but  why  fhould  this  double  work  be  im- 
pofed,  v/hen  the  crop  which  had  been  all  pulled  at 
cnce^  foon  as  the  male  plants  fhewed  ripenefs,  proved 
fo  excellent  and  fo  unexceptionable  ? 

The  plants  of  one  crop,  which  grew  too  tliialy, 

were 

•  Mr  hemp  feed  was  genei-^Uy  fo\va  too  thin,  as  I  fufpe^;- 
iinJ  the  hemp  w-as  ralber  too  little  rotted,  from  over  caution. 


HEMP.  115 

were  fo  firmly  fixed,  that  it  was  found  neceffary  to 
cut  them  off  near  the  ground;  which  left  their  nu- 
merous fnags  {landing :  and  they  were  dangerous  to 
fuch  beads  as  might  any  how  get  into  the  ground ; 
and  to  people  walking  there,  cfpecially  in  the  dark. 

If  the  ground  be  good  and  well  prepared,  no  crop 
is  more  certain  than  hemp,  fowed  in  time,  and  when 
the  foil  is  moift.  But  how  uncertain  is  the  tobacco 
crop !  Failure  of  plants  from  froll,  drought,  or  fly  ; 
want  of  feafonable  weather  for  planting ;  deftruftion 
by  the  ground-worm,  web-worm,  horn-worm ;  but- 
tcning  low,  for  want  of  rain  ;  curling  or  frenching, 
from  too  much  rain ;  houfe-burning  or  funking 
whilfl:  curing  ;  frofl  before  houfed  ;  heating  in  bulk 
or  in  the  hogfhead  ;  infpe^don,  culling.  Sec.  Cul- 
tivating tobacco  cleans,  but  expofes  foil  to  exhalation 
and  wafhing  away.  It  is  only  about  a  month  that 
it  fhclters  the  ground :  but  hemp  fliades  it  from 
May  till  about  the  firft  of  Augufl: :  and  from  early 
Augufl  it  would  be  advantageoufly  flickered  with  a 
growth  of  buckwheat,  till  this  bloflbras ;  and  then 
(commonly)  during  a  temperate  flate  of  heat,  it 
would  be  a  manure  if  plowed  in. 

Tliis  buckiuhcat  manure  repeated  every  fall  would 
I  believe  prcferve  the  foil  in  good  heart  for  yield- 
ing rich  crops  of  hemp,   it  not  fuffered  to  go  to 
feed,  during  many  fuccdljive  yean;.     Plants  fuffercd 
H  2  to 


lie  H£MF. 

1o  go  to  feed,  remarkably  impoverifli  foil.  Not  fo  of 
what  arc  harrefted  before  they  are  in  feed.  Hemp  is 
pulled  before  it  feeds  :  flax  whilft  in  full  feed.  The 
effects  on  the  foil  are  accordingly.  But  if  the  m.ale 
Hemp  is  pulled  by  the  beginning  of  Augufl:  and  the 
female  not  till  September,  the  feed  being  then  ripen- 
ed, the  foil  is  thereby  greatly  impoveriflied  ;  and  two 
hemp  harvefts  are  produced  inftead  of  one  :  the  lad 
whereof  interferes  with  feeding  of  wheat,  rye,  and 
barley. 

Buckwheat  mufl:  not  run  io  feed  on  ground  to  be 
fown  with  hemp.  I  have  had  it  fpire  up  and  con- 
tend with  growing  hemp,  till  the  buckwheat  has 
been  five  feet  high. 

The  heavieil  work  in  procuring  Hemp,  is  the 
breaking  and  fcutching  or  fwingling  it.  But  as  it  is 
the  work  of  leifure  winter,  and  every  pcrfon  who 
drips  tobacco  can  break  and  fwingle  hem.p  :  and 
moreover  as  hirelings,  if  neceilary,  are  in  that  fea- 
fon  eaUly  obtained,  this  bugbear  part  of  the  bulinefs 
can  aiTuredly  be  accompliflied,  and  the  hemp  got  rid 
cf  at  market  in  the  fpring. — The  riddance  of  crops 
is  aliuays  advantageous  to  future  operations. 

A  planter  gaining  20  hogflieads  of  tobacco  from 
20  acres  cf  ground,  value  800  dollars,  might  expeft 
12000  or  i6cGclbs.  of  hemp  from  the  fame  ground, 
value  icoo  or  izzo  dollars.     But,  if  the  income 

from 


HEMP.  117 

from  the  hemp  flaould  be  a  fourth  lefs  than  from  the 
tobacco  crop,  yet  I  would,  on  feveral  accounts,  pre- 
fer the  hemp  culture. 

For  the  country  houfe-wife  who  wiflies  for  infor- 
mation, the  following  is  inferted  as  what  I  have  read 
of  a  method  o^  foftening  and  preparing  hemp,  for 
making  it  into  hnen.  The  Hemp  is  laid  at  full 
length  in  a  kettle.  If  the  kettle  is  too  fmall  to  admit 
it  at  full  length,  the  hemp  may  be  doubled,  but  with- 
out twilling  it  J  only  the  fmall  end  of  every  hand  is 
twilled  a  little,  to  keep  the  hands  whole,  and  from 
tangling.  Smooth  flicks  are  laid  in  the  bottom  of 
the  kettle,  acrofs  and  acrofs  three  or  four  layers,  ac- 
cording to  the  fize  and  depth  of  the  kettle ;  which 
is  for  keeping  the  hemp  from  'touching  the  liquor. 
Then  pour  ley  of  middling  flrength,  half  the  flrength 
of  that  for  foap,  gently  into  the  kettle  till  it  rifes 
nearly  to  the  tops  of  the  flicks.  The  hemp  is  then 
laid  in,  layer  crolling  layer,  fo  that  the  fleam  may  pafs 
through  the  whole  body  of  the  hemp.  The  kettle 
is  now  covered  clofe  as  can  be,  and  hung  over  a  very 
gentle  fire  to  flew  or  fimmer,  but  not  boil,  fo  as  to 
raife  a  good  fleam  for  6  or  8  hours.  It  is  then  ta- 
ken off,  and  let  fland  co-vcred  till  the  hemp  is  cool 
enough  to  be  handled.  It  is  now  taken  out,  and 
wrung  very  carefully,  till  dry  as  can  be :  then  hang 
it  up  §ut  of  the  way  of  the  ivi?id,  in  a  garret  or  barn 
with  all  the  doors  fhut.     Here  it  remains,  now  and 

then 


IlS  FARM-YARD    MANURE, 

then  turning  it,  till  perfectly  dry.  Then  pack  it  up 
in  a  clofe^  dry  place,  till  it  is  to  be  ufed.  Yet  at 
times  it  is  to  be  vifited,  and  examined  if  any  part  has 
become  damp*  At  leifure,  twht  up  as  many  hands 
of  hemp  as  arc  intended  for  prefent  ufe,  hard  as  you 
can ;  and  with  a  fmart,  round,  fmooth  hand-beetle, 
on  a  fmooth  (lone  beat  and  pound  each  hand  by  it- 
{t\^^  all  over  very  well,  turning  it  round  till  all  is 
well  bruifed.  Then  untwifl:  and  hackle  it  through 
a  coarfe,  and  after  it  through  a  fine  hackle.  Hack- 
ling is  performed  in  the  fame  manner  as  if  combing 
a  fine  head  of  hair  j  beginning  at  the  ends  below  as 
thefe  are  entangled,  rifmg  higher  and  higher  :  at  lafl 
the  top  of  the  head  is  reached.  The  firfl  tow  makes 
country  rope  5  the  fecond,  ofnaburgs,  Iheeting  and 
bagging  j  and  the  pure  hemp  excellent  thread  and 
linen. 

FARM- YARD  MANURE. 

For  conducing  the  bufinefs  of  a  farm  to  full  ad- 
vantage, the  farmer  is  \.o  purfue  objefts  which  fyf- 
tematically  embrace  fuch  a  regular  courfe  of  parti- 
culars as  fiiall  bell  follow  and  depend  on  each  other, 
for  obtaining  the  one  whole  of  the  defign  of  farm- 
ing. It  is  not  immediate  produft  alone  that  we  aim 
at :  for,  whilft  we  wiih  to  obtain  repeated  full  crops, 
our  reafon  alTures  us  it  is  indifpenfably  neceifary  to 
that  end,  that  the  foil  be  preferved  in  full  vigor. 
The  mind  then  is  employed,  principally,  on  the  ob- 

jefts 


FARM-YARD    MANURE.  II9 

jefts  0^  prefer  vat  ion  and  hnpro'vement  of  the  prodii6lhe 
powers  cf  the  earth,  Obfervations  on  the  ftate  of 
common  farming  fix  the  opinion,  th'at  no  unconneft- 
ed  random  purfuits  tend  to  enfure  a  fuccellion  of  ad- 
vantageous hufbandry  for  any  length  of  time. 

Well  chofen  rotations  of  crops  together  with  due 
culture,  are  believed  to  be  fo  favourable  to  the 
ground  as  to  need  but  httlc  of  manure  in  comparifon 
of  what  the  common  random  or  ill  chofen  crops  abfo- 
lutely  require.  Still  the  fleady  and  attentive  appli- 
cation of  /nanures,  is  held  to  be  an  eflential  duty  in 
farming,  a  great  link  of  the  chain,  in  every  inftance. 
If  rich  foils  require,  comparatively,  but  a  moderate 
quantity,  in  a  rotation  where  ameliorating  crops  are 
prevalent,  yet  middling  and  poor  foils  want  all  that 
can  be  obtained;  and,  under  the  old  Mary/and  courfes 
efpecially^  all  foils  eagerly  demand  more  manure  than 
can  he  readily  procured.  Thefe  exhaufling  courfes 
we  fee  continually  impoverilh  the  foil.  Too  many 
farmers  therefore  incline  to  move  to  frelh  lands ; 
where  they  would  precifely  acl  the  fame  murderous 
part  over  again. 

The  principal  links  in  good  farming  are  due  tillage^ 
proper  rotations  of  crops ^  which  are  treated  of  above, 
and  manures^  of  which  it  is  wiflied  the  occafion 
would  admit  of  more  than  the  few  obfervations 
which  follow. 

«  In 


!lft<^  FARM-YARD    MANURE. 

"  In  the  American  praftlce,  hay  and  fodder  are 
stacked  in  the  jields  ;  and  the  cattle  2Xt  fed  round  the 
stacks  and fodder-houfes :  the  difadvantages  whereof 
are, 

1 .  A  wasteful  ufe  of  the  provender  j 

2.  The  dung  lying  as  it  is  dropped  without  straw, 
or  other  vegetable  fubftance  brought  to  it,  the  ma- 
nure is  little  in  quantity  ;  and 

3.  That  little  not  lying  in  heaps,  is  reduced  abun- 
dantly by  exhalation  and  rain;  without  leaving  any 
thing  to  the  foil. 

In  the  Englifli  and  Flemifli  practice  (feebly  obferv- 
cd  by  a  few  of  our  hufbandmen)  cattle  are  carefully 
houfed,  or  otherwife  confined  to  a  fold  yard  in  which 
zrefhelters  againfl  cold  rains,  during  the  whole  win- 
ter, and  as  far  through  the  fpring  as  food  will  lafl : 
the  advantages  of  which  are, 

1.  A  fair  expenditure  of  the  provender,  without 

waste : 

2.  Lefs  exhaustion  of  the  juices  5  becaufe  of  the 
dung  lying  together,  in  large  heaps : 

3.  The  dung  being  mixed  with  the  straw,  and 
other  vegetable  fubflances  brought  to  the  beads  as 
litter,  the  whole  is  trod  together,  and  forms  a  large 
quantity  of  very  valuable  manure. 

It 


FARM-YARD     MANURE.  121 

It  may  be  no  exaggeration  to  affirm,  that  the  dif- 
ference in  the  quantities  of  manures  obtained  from 
an  equal  (lock  of  cattle  by  thofe  fcveral  methods, 
may  be  as  three  to  one.  If  fix  acres  may  be  annu- 
ally manured  by  the  inferior  method,  then  may 
eighteen  by  the  fuperior.  Now  on  a  fuppofition 
that  manured  land  is  kept  in  heart  five  years  u  ithout 
repeating,  in  the  one  cafe  but  thirty  acres  will  al- 
ways remain  in  good  order ;  in  the  other  ninety 
acres  :  a  very  important  difference  !  Indeed  It  is  all 
the  difference  between  an  hufbandman's  poverty  and 
his  riches."* 

Do  cattle,  when  foddered  round  hay-ftacks  and 
fodder-houfes  or  ricks,  give  twelve  loads  of  manure 
each  ?  Do  they  yield  one  fuch  load  ?  It  is  a  fa<5l 
ftated  I  think  by  Mr.  Young,  that  in  the  courfe  of 
a  winter  cattle,  kept  up  and  littered  in  a  yard,  have 
yielded  full  twelve  fuch  loads,  each  beall ;  and  if 
foiled  or  fed  well  during  the  fummer  with  cut  green 
grafs  or  clover,  they  may  be  expelled  to  yield  more 
and  richer  manure ;  efpecially  when  they  are  kept' 
z(p,  on  :ifidl  quantity  of  litter.  Here,  by  the  way, 
it  may  be  noted  that  a  portion  of  grafs  only  fuffici- 
ent  to  keep  one  bead  in  pasturing,  has  fufficed  five 
in  foiling :  and  v/hat  is  of  immenfe  importance  to 

the 

*  The  above  quoted  paffage  is  from  a  friend,  v-ho  \vl{hed 
to  h.Tve  fomething  faid  oi  farm  yard  manure  ;  and  in  very  fev.- 
words  he  has  here  faid  a  great  deal. 


122  FARM-YARD    MANURSr 

the  ilate  of  the  ground  and  of  future  crops,  the 
ground  being  untrod,  in  foiling,  is  left  light  and  772*?/- 
l&w.  Another  favourable  circumftaucc  attends  foil- 
ing: the  beafls  are  kept  mjhade,  and  confiderably 
protected  from  flies ;  efpecially  when  the  houfe  is 
kept  dark  during  the  heat  of  the  day,  with  only 
airholes  near  the  ground  and  above  their  heads.* 

It 

*  In  to%ms,  'Z9ajh  is  given  to  cows ;  and  in  the  country 
ftuill  to  fows,  &c.  WaJJ}  is  compofed  of  wafhings  from 
difhes,  and  the  oSA  of  roots  and  cabbage  from  kitchens. 
SimU  is  meal,  or  rye,  or  buckwheat  foaked  in  water  till  the 
grains  fwell,  and  with  ftirring  burft ;  and  fometimes  maize 
is  fo  foakei  Swill  is  feid  to  be  the  moli  nourifhing  to  hogs 
"when  foured  by  long  {landing.  The  celebrated  Count  Rtun- 
ford  lays  it  is  coming  fafl  into  ufe  in  Germany  to  keep  hom- 
ed cattle  confined  in  ftables,  all  the  year  round,  and  there  feed 
and  frequently  give  thtm  a  drank,  compofed  of  bran,  grains, 
mafhed  potatoes,  mafhed  turnips,  or  cat  meal,  rye  meal,  or 
barley  meal,  with  a  large  proportion  of  'zsaier  and  a  good  quan- 
tity oi  fait :  and  it  is  difcovered  to  be  the  moft  nouriihing 
when  given  ivarm,  and  when  the  mixture  has  been  well  hikd. 
Another  advantageous  practice,  the  Count  fays,  is  lo  give 
one- third  of  cut  firazc,  miit  with  two- thirds  of  chopt  green 
chvir ;  with  which  homed  cattle  ruminate  (chew  the  cud) 
better  than  \cith  green  clover  alone.  Coach  horfcs  are  kept 
up  in  uahles,  many  of  them  fcarcely  ever  being  permitted  to 
run  out  on  grafs.  My  coach  horfes  for  nine  or  ten  years  paft 
have  never  been  a  moment  at  pafture,  but  in  ail  that  time 
have  been  kept  in  ilables,  and  fed  on  nothing  but  hay  and 
oats,  and  now  and  then  a  little  bran  and  ihorts  or  maize ; 
obicndng  wiiiiai  to  give  them  fatf  freqmntlj.     Their  health 


FARM-YARD    MANURE.  1 23 

It  will  be  faid,  the  ground  round  the  flacks  re- 
ceives the  dung  dropt,  as  a  dreffing  to  fo  much  of 

the 

and  plight  have  conftantly  been  good  in  the  whole  of  that 
time.     Then  why  need  farmers  fuffer  their  beafts  to  tread, 
harden  and  untiil  their  foil,  and  wafte  grafs  and  dung,  by 
running  in  paRures,  when  they  may  more  advantageoufly  be 
kept  up,  houfed  and  fed  during  fummcr  with  cut  green  clover 
andjira-jj,  and  in  winter  \\\^  fodder  and  drank.     If  no  beafts 
were  ever  fuff*red  to  pafture,  there  tlien  fcarcely  would  be 
any  neceffity  for  having  crofs  fences— What  a  faving  of  la- 
bour and  wood  !     But  what  is  to  be  done  with  flieep  ?    Give 
them  a  range  of  v/oodland  and  rough  grounds  ?    Why  not 
keep  them  up  ?    Mr.  Bakewell  praftifed  ftall-feeding  them,  if 
he  did  not  alfo  keep  fome  in  houfes  the  year  round.     Tliey 
would  require  airy  Ihelters  and  roomy  yards,  in  dlvifions,  for 
the  different  conditions  of  Ihccp.     In  Italy  are  fheep-honfes 
built  of  ftoae  in  rows,  with  divifions,  a  variety.     Before  them 
is  a  large  fquare  wclofure,  divided  into/t;^  equal  parts.     In  the 
firft  divifion  and  in  tlie  ftalls  belonging  to  them,  are  the  eives 
big  -with  young  ;  in  the  fecond  /aching  lambs  ;  in  the  tliird  and 
fourth,  the  tzuo  year  old  luTibs  ;  and  in  the  fifth  are  tlie  lamh 
done  fuching.      Trav.  through  Naples,  tranflated  by  Aufrere, 
1789.     In  Flanders  their  (lieep  are  ahuays  in  ftables,  and  are 
let  out  every  day  into  the  yard.     20  An.  466. — Mr.  Cook 
(inventor  of  the  drill)  fays  that  the  benefits  from  Jlratu  cut 
into  ch'.'ff,  and  paffing  through  cattle,  irjlead  of  being  trod  uv.hr 
foot  as  littery  are  very  great.     He  fupported  in  winter,  40  cat- 
tle near  7  months  on  30  acres  of  yFrjo; ;  and  4  of  turnip  J ; 
and  made  from  it  400  tons  of  dung— 10  tons  of  pure  dung- 
each  bcall— How  valuable!     When  he  ^Tote   tliij  he  wss 
making  experiments  in  feeding  his  borfes  en  green  food,  cic  - 
yer,  vetches  and  grafs  n./  ^Uhjlra-^;  and  expcded  the  Jun- 


124  FARM-YARD    MANURE* 

tlie  field.  Alas !  we  know  this  extends  to  a  very 
fmall  diftance,  and  the  effefl  is  in  no  part  conCder- 

able. 

from  it  will  more  than  pay  for  all  their  keep  and  the  expenfe 
of  cutting.  28  Eng.  Rev.  1796,  p.  89.  "  It  has,  fay  die 
reviewers,  long  been  ufed  in  Germany  to  chop  green  clover y 
and  mix  it  with  choptjlra'w  :  two  flone  (zStb.)  of  clover,  and 
one  (i4tb.)  of  ftraw.  It  is  praftifed  by  thofe  chiefly  who 
confiae  horned  cattle  in  flables,  the  year  round ;  feeding  with 
ihefe  in  fummer,  drank  in  winter." — Sheds  with  large  boilers 
are  fitted  to  ftables  and  cow-houfes,  to  prepare  food  for  horfes 
and  cattle.  Englifh  farmers  fay  they  find  it  highly  advan- 
tageous. The  dranks  being  loHed  are  more  nourifliing  and 
wholefome.  Expenfe  of  fuel  and  attendance  are  compenfat- 
ed  by  improvement  of  the  food.  They  boil  potatoes  two  or 
three  hours  ;  the  longer  the  more  the  food  is  improved.  But 
of  late  Jieaming  inftead  of  boiling  potatoes  is  preferred,  for 
faving  fuel.  And  now  by  recent  improvements  in  the  eco- 
nomy of  fire,  by  Count  Rumford,  the  expenfe  of  fire  and 
fuel  is  reduced  to  a  mere  mite.  They  throw  away  the 
water,  as  it  is  apprehended  tliere  is  fomething  noxious  to 

animals  in  raw  potatoes y  and  in  potatos-ivater. In  Japan 

tliey  univerfally  feed  all  beafts  in  hcufes ;  in  which  they 
are  kept  up  the  year  through.  They  feem  to  know  no- 
thing of  pafturing. — "  I  took  the  idea  of  maintaining  cattle 
in  yards  cr  houfcs,  fays  Mr.  Baker,  from  having  frequently 
heard  that,  in  Flanders^  they  fcarcely  ever  fuffer  their  cattle 
to  pajiure  at  large  :  but  the  farmers  all  feed  them  in  houfes. 
I  have  now  purfued  it  three  or  four  years  ;  and  have  fo  miuch 
re:ifon  to  be  fatisfied  with  it,  that  I  cannot  fufficiently  recom- 
mend it  to  others."     1  An.  93. In  foiling  there  is  fome- 

times  a  walling  of 'the  green  food,  by  giving  vmre  than  is 
eaten ;  laying  it  in  L'aps ;  where  it  remains  till  it  ferments 


FARM-YARD    MANURE.  1 25 

able.  The  place  where,  is  fome  eminence :  the 
rains  and  winds  of  half  the  year  'n-ajh- -aivay  and 
evaporate  from  the  frozen  ground  mod  of  the  rich 
fubllance  of  the  dung  fo  dropt  about ;  and  the 
ground,  whilfl:  unfrozen,  is  irod  clofe  and  poached  to 
a  degree  that  untills  it  nearly  equal  to  the  value  of 
the  dung  left  on  it  uninjured.  This  is  iliuflrated : 
a  fodder  houfe  (a  hoilow  rick  made  of  maize  tops: 
in  the  way  of  thatch)  was  fet  up  in  a  field,  as  is 
ufual :  it  was  fenced  in.  At  the  fouth  front  maize 
was  hu/ked,  and  the  hulks  were  fheltered  in  the 
fodder  houfe.  In  the  courfe  of  the  winter  they 
were  given  out  to  cattle,  in  front  of  the  rick.  In 
April  the  fodder  houfe  being  then  empty  was  pulled 
down,  and  the  covering  of  maize  tops  was  given  to 

the 

and  becomes  four,  &c. — Bv  foilmg  tn  a  yard  littered,  with 
the  food  in  racks  and  cribs,  labour  in  cleaning  and  favinp- 
urine  is  leiTened.  But  the  value  of  this  labour  fo  faved  is  loH 
in  the  cattle  thriving  lefs,  the  quality  of  the  manure,  the  beafts 
pulhing  and  driving  each  other  and  illnaturedly  preventing 
others  from  eating,  whilft  they  are  worried  by  flies.  Tramp- 
ling dung  and  litter  in  the  winter,  or  much  rain,  gives  an  ap- 
pearance of  rottennefs  very  fallacious.  Water,  is  the  proper 
ferment  for  dung,  togeth.^r  witli  the  rich  material  urine  ;  but 
treading  dung  as  fall:  as  it  is  made,  impedes  fermentation. 
Dung  made  under  cover  (the  beafts  kept  up)  is  better  than 
made  in  a  yard :  cattle  do  better  and  the  food  goes  further. 
14  An.  160. — But  is  it  not  better  that  dung  fhould  be  rotted 
not  more  than  partially  when  the  ground  receives  it,  that  it 
may  ferment  ind  rot  moftly  v.hiil^  In  the  ground 


> 


125  JARIvI-YARD     MANURE, 

the  cattle.  The  ground  thus  fljcltered  by  the  fod- 
der houfe  for  fix  months,  October  to  April,  {hevvxd 
marks  of  richnefs  greatly  fuperior  to  the  ground  on 
•which  the  cattle  were  foddered  during  the  fame 
time :  grafs,  weeds  and  crops,  during  the  four  or 
five  following  years  of  my  remaining  on  the  farm, 
{hewed  this  in  their  great  growth.  Where  the 
fodder-houfe,  three  hundred  feet  long  and  twenty 
broad,  flood  and  flickered  the  ground  the  richnefs 
of  the  foil  was  flrongly  marked  j  when  but  a  faint 
fuperloriry  over  the  common  field  appeared  on  the 
part  where  the  cattle  were  foddered. 

Litter  is  an  efTential,  to  cattle  when  let  into  ydrds, 
inftead  of  being  kept  in  houfes  ;  without  which 
yard  manure  is  of  fmall  account ;  and  unlefs  it  be  in 
full  proportion  to  the  number  of  cattle  in  the  yard, 
it  is  not  thought  highly  of:  but  is  as  a  half  done 
tiling.  Good  farmers  in  England  deem  full  litter- 
ing of  cattle,  when  /;;  yards,  of  fuch  importance 
that  after  reaping  with  fickles  and  inning  their 
wheat,  they  chop  the  stubble  with  fithes,  and  flack 
it  for  litter.  Befides  flraw  and  flubble  for  litter, 
they  apply  to  the  fame  ufe,  fern  and  fuch  other  ve- 
getable fubdances  as  they  can  procure:  and  they 
buy  flraw  from  common  farmers  who  are  not  in  the 
practice  of  littering.*     In  all  countries,    common 

farmers 

*  Mr.  Bake-well  kapt  his  beafts  houfed  vnthout  Utter  till  of 
bte.     He  prefers  the  dung  from  a  given  quantity  of  flraw 


FARM-YARD    MANURE.  1 27 

farmers  are  indifferent  to  improvemeitts :  they  look 
not  beyond  old  habits ;  and  it  is  prudent  that  they 
venture  not  on  extenjive  new  projects,  without  firfl 
making  experiment.  A  full  littering  is  three  loads 
of  12  or  13001b  of  ftraw  to  each  grown  beaft.* 
In  England  ilraw  is  fold  by  farmers  who  are  tenants 
on  (hort  leafes,  who  jog  on  as  their  fathers  and  as 
therafelves  were  trained,  and  from  which  they  can- 
not deviate.!  It  is  prefumed  that  here  alfo  ftraw  is 
to  be  bought.  Maize  stalks  will  for  a  long  while 
cofl:  little  elfe  than  carriage.  A  fkeleton  frame  made 
of  a  light  wood  may  be  contrived  to  carry  a  vafl 
quantity  when  they  are  dry  :  but  whilfl:  yet  uncur- 

ed 

eaten  by  catde,  to  a  larger  quantity  gained  by  Uttering.  On 
which  Mr.  Young  obferves,  that  his  rcafoning  is  good  where 
Hubble,  fern,  and  tlie  like  are  to  be  had  for  littering  with ; 
but  adds  diat  a  fmall  quantity  of  dung  very  rich,  is  not 
equally  efficacious  with  a  large  quantity  of  weak  dung  that 
contains  altogether  equal  richnefs.  Mr.  Bakewell  afterwards 
practifed  littering  his  cattle  in  their  llieds.     4  E.  Tour  449. 

*  In  England,  13001b.  o£  Jlrawj  heaped  on  a  waggon  is  a 
load.  A  load  o{  hay  is  various  :  In  fome  places  it  is  an  exaft 
ton,  of  22401b. ;  in  otliers,  220olb.';  in  others  again  2500; 
and  about  Z.o«^ii«,  only  iSoolb. 

f  "  I  believe  it  is  never  done,  except  in  the  vicinity  of 
**  large  towns  ;  where  it  is  eafy  to  exchange  flraw  for  manure 
*'  to  a  double  profit.  Maize  (talks  might  undoubtedly  be 
"  converted  to  excellent  manure,  but  feein  to  be  univcrfaliy 
«  wafted."     S. 


128  FARM-YARD    MANURE/ 

ed  they  are  better,  becaufe  of  their  fweet  and  iiou» 
rifhing  juice,  which  invites  cattle  to  browfe  on  thera, 
as  they  he  under  foot  in  the  yard.  When  they  are 
much  trodden  they  become  of  ^fponge-Iike  consistence, 
which  retains  the  dung  and  the  urine  very  efFeftually. 
Let  us  not  be  fparing  of  expenfe,  or  be  dilatory  in 
procuring  the  neceflary  materials  for  d.full  littering. 
It  increafes  and  preferves  the  inanure  requifite  for 
the  improvement  and  prefervation  of  the  powers  of 
the  foil,  for  enabling  it  to  yield  greater  crops  and 
more  of  pecuniary  income,  and  comfort. 

In  America,  jflraw,  flubble,  maize  ftalks,  fern, 
weeds  before  they  feed,  flags,  wild  oats,  fea  grafs, 
and  leaves  of  trees  are  to  be  applied  as  litter.  Our 
farmers  fay,  "  there  is  no  manure  in  corn  flalks ;" 
and  they  are  left  (landing  in  the  fields.  I  have  been 
ufed  to  draw  them  into  my  cattle-yard,  in  the  fall 
and  during  winter ;  where  they  were  laid  thick,  as 
litter  to  grown  cattle,  and  were  trod  into  a  fponge- 
jike  ftate ;  in  which  they  catch  and  retain  the  dung 
and  urine  of  the  cattle,  fo  as  to  give  a  great  quan- 
tity of  rich  manure.  A  farmer  near  Philadelphia, 
after  inning  his  wheat  crop,  mowed  and  fecured  the 
stubble :  the  motives  whereof  were  to  preferve  his 
young  clover  from  being  fmothered  by  a  rank  flub- 
ble, and  to  ufe  the  ftubble  as  Utter  to  his  beafls. 
This  is  the  firft  inflance  I  have  known  of  stubble  be- 
ing liived  in  America  with  any  view  to  Utteri?ig  cat- 
tle! 


fARM'YART)    MANURE.  I29 

i/e/  Farmer  RuJJj  has  thus  given  an  important  le{* 
fon,  for  fhofe  who  are  difpofed  to  fecond  their  judg- 
ment with  determined  exertion ! 

The  quantity  of  draw  and  ftnbble  to  be  produced 
in  crops  is  eflimated  at  very  great  uncertainty  before- 
hand, becaufe  of  the  various  growths  which  crops 
take  in  different  years-  It  may  be  from  ^o  or  60 
to  90  or  I  colt)  of  ftraw  alone,  for  each  bufliel  of 
wheat  produced.  In  the  Mufeum  Rufticum,  and  in 
the  8vo  volume  of  feled  papers  from  it,  are  accu- 
rate details  of  a  crop  of  wheat,  with  its  proportions 
of  ftraw  and  chaff  to  that  of  the  wheat. 

In  November  all  the  cattle  are  to  be  conjimd  from 
wandering  about  the  fields.  The  cattle-yard  is  then 
well  littered  j  and  as  often  as  the  litter  is  trod  into 
the  dung  and  muck,  or  is  foaking  wet,  more  litter 
is  added  \  fo  that  the  beafts  may  lye  always  dcart 
and  dry.  They  are  thus  confined  to  a  yard  and  lit- 
tered till  there  is  a  full  bite  of  grafs  in  May.  All 
the  cattle  ought  to  be  under  flielter  from  cold  rains 
during  that  time.  Litter  is  to  be  given  them,  as- 
above.  But  it  is  flill  better  to  keep  flock  altoge- 
ther in  houfes ;  that  they  may  there  eat  all  the  stravjy 
and  not  be  fulFcrcd  to  tread  any  of  it  into  muck. 

It  is  the  moft  advantageous  to  a  farm,  and  the 
jnoft  profitable  to  the  farmer  to  h^ve  as  numerous. 

I  a  {lock 


rja  FARM-YARD    MANURI'. 

a  ftock  of  caiik  as  can  be  kept  well,  and  no  more 
than  can  he  fo  kept.  Inftead  of  cultivating  grain 
for  the  7i:jrket,  let  it  with  its  ftraw  be  raifed  as  food 
io  live  stock,  for  the  market,  efpecially  whilfl  wheat 
crops  are  reduced,  as  at  prefent,  by  the  Heflian  fly, 
and  until  our  foil  is  reftored  to  good  heart  by  the 
live  ftock.  The  ftraw  of  grain  crops  will  keep  cat- 
tle, and  the  grain  in  meal  with  ftraw  or  maize  fod- 
der v,'\]]  fatten  them.  See  p.  68.  Yet  I  fliouid  not 
be  fond  of  cultivating  grain  to  be  given  to  Hve  flock, 
if  it  were  not  for  the  neceffity  of  having  strazv  for 
them ;  and  ftraw  is  a  very  good  and  very  cheap 
food,  when  duly  prepared  and  applied.  It  is  bet- 
ter to  have  too  few  cattle  than  too  many :  yet  in 
fome  parts  of  America,  farmers  exceedingly  difpro- 
portion  their  cattle  to  their  provender.  They  will 
have  numbers  of  hidebound  creatures,  many  where- 
of die  from  mere  want  oi  food  and  ^t//fr  /  To' that 
Icfs  meat  and  lefs  manure  are  derived  from  a  great 
number  fo  poorly  kept,  than  better  farmers  have 
from  a  due  proportion  well  kept.  Befides,  does 
not  the  man  feel  fliame  in  the  cruelty  of  ftar\-ing  or 
keeping  in  a  ftate  of  want  and  mifery  a  fellow-crea- 
ture com.mitted  to  his  care?  Is  it  not  a  tnift  to  the 
CTeature  man,  from  the  Father  of  all  creatures  ? 

The  live-stock  ought  to  be  as  many  as  can  be  kept 
fielier^d  from  cold  rains,  with  abu7idant  iiinter  and 
fuviTner  find.     Of  all  the  kinds,  the  borfe  is  the  raoft: 

coftly 


FARM-YARD     MANURE.  IJl 

coftly  and  the  moft  injurious  to  the  farm.  He  bites, 
clofc,  is  almofl  continually  treading  and  poaching 
the  ground  j  and  eats  more  than  the  ox  as  5  to  3  j 
yet  is  not  hirafelf  eatable :  when  he  dies  he  is  loft 
for  ever.  The  ox  is  meat :  after  having  given  us 
his  labour,  he  becomes  food  to  us.  Steers  arc  un- 
profitable :  they  coft  five  or  fix  years  keeping,  with- 
out yielding  labour ;  and  are  then  fold  for  lefs  thaiL 
the  coft  of  keeping  and  fattening  them.  Coivs  give 
milk,  and  oxen  give  labour.*  Sheep  are  profitable. 
I  2  So\vs 

*  Cows  and  oxen  may  be  fattened  and  difpofed  of  when  7 
or  8  years  old.  If  6  are  to  be  difpofed  of,  then  the  ftock  is 
to  confift.  of  6  calves,  6  of  two  yeais,  6  of  3  years,  6  of  4, 
6  of  5,  6  of  6,  6  of  7,  and  6  of  8  years ;  m  all  forty-eight 
Jiead;  whereof  thirty  give  milk,  labour,  or  meat.  After 
marking  fix  calves,  yearly,  die  very  ie/i  for  cows  and  oxen, 
the  reft  are  to  be  fold:  fo  that  ndt  a  fteer  is  to  be  raifed, 
other  than  fliall  be  necelTiary  for  oxetl.  An  ox  improves  in 
value,  ten  dollars  a  year  from  the  time  that  he  comes  to  be 
ufed  and  fed  as  an  ox.  A  horfe  declines,  till  he  comes  to 
nothing.  "  Mr.  Cooper  was  much  prejudiced  againft  oxen  1 
but  is  now  fuch  a  conA-ert  as  to  have  parted  with  moft  of  his 
horfes.  A  horfe  cofts  as  much  as  4-^  oxen  :  and  the  ox's 
keep  is  in  fummer,  gmfs  alone ;  jn  winter,  Jira-ju :  on  which 
they  may  be  worked  moderately.  If  Inrd  v.-orked,  they  have 
hay.  In  harnsfs,  they  are  ftill  moro  valuable.  Their  haniefs 
is  much  tlie  fame  as  for  horfes  ;  except  tJiat  the  collars,  open, 
are  buckled  on  and  worn  contrary  to  thofe  for  horfes  :  tlie 
narrow  end  of  the  collars,  which,  open,  being  downwards  ; — • 
rind  as  the  chains  are  faftened  to  them  in  the  fame  dircdion 
as  in  horfe-harnefs,  the  bcalls  of  courfe  draw  much  higher 
Vhnn  horffs.     Ilie  lio«  of  ths  chair.s  is  alnioft  up  to  their 


132  FARM-YARD     MANURE. 

Sozus  and  pigs  ought  to  be  efpecially  kept  \There 
there  is  a  dairy,  as  they  make  a  confiderable  part 
of  its  profit,  from  the  offal  milk.  Hogs  are  advan- 
tageoufly  kept  on  green  clover  ;  and  fattened  on  pc- 
tatces  viith  rneal  of  maize. 

Quantity 

backs  ;  but  much  above  the  chelt :  which  is  neceflary  from 
the  different  £hape  of  horfes  and  oxeu.  They  draw,  when  in 
tamefs,  ahreajl  in  pairs  ;  Jingle ;  or  in  a  line  one  before  another ; 
and  walk  as  fail  as  horfes.  An  ox-tsam  five  in  a  waggon, 
and  a  horfe-team,  four  in  another  waggon.  Both  went  twice 
a  week,  fourteen  miles  out,  and  fourteen  miles  home  each 
day  :  die  load  equal,  about  two  tuns.  The  oxen  were  gene- 
ralty  at  home  two  hours  before  the  horfes  ;  and  were  in  har- 
nefs.  Driving  vi-:th  gir.tlerufs  and  good  tempir,  without  ever 
hurrying,  is  found  neceflary  to  procure  their  exerlions.  A  per- 
fon  who  drew  with  oxen,  two  or  three  years,  and  made  fair 
experiments  comparing  tliem  with  horfes  fays,  an  ox  value 
thirty  dollars,  is  equally  ftrong  in  tlie  draught,  with  a  horfe 
value  ninety  dollars,  and  equally  fit  for  plow,  cart  or  har- 
row ;  and  that  the  ex  requires  a  fourth  part  lefs  provender 
tha^  the  horfe  :  alfc  that  the  ex  works  and  increafes,  from  four 
till  he  is  ten  years  old ;  but  tliat  feven  hoiu-*  work  a  day  is 
to  him  as  much  as  eight  to  a  horfe."  See  E.  Tour,  voL  i. 
p.  172 — vol.  iii.  152 — ^vol.  iv.  5.  8z.  269 — vol.  Li.  398.  418 
•—vol.  Iv.  268.  273.  An.  vol.  sriii.  68.  70.  Oxen  may  eve- 
ry  way  be  ufed  inftead  ©f  horfes  :  bruUed  and  rid ;  harne/fed 
ead  driven  in  vraggons,  plows,  Sec.  In  Maryland  one  Sutton 
Sicklemore  rode  on  a  bull  about  the  country  ;  and  I  have 
ijeen  a  woman  going  to  a  race,  with  her  cheR  of  cakes  and 
fitting  in  a  truck  drawn  by  a  bull  bridled  and  guided  by  her- 
felf.  In  Pcnnf}  ivania,  I  faw  a  waggon  drawn  by  t-zvo  tuVt 
*rd  i^(  cxe/if  IriJLd  and gtertd  m  kuriiejt  Qud  (olhrs. 


FARM-YARD     MANURE.  235 

Quantity  of  land,  alone,  is  no  rule  for  fixing  on 
the  number  of  cattle  to  be  kept.  Not  only  trie 
quantity  and  quality,  but  alfo  the  fituation  and  the 
crops  will  affeft  the  queftion :  and  the  attentive  far- 
mer will  determine  from  his  experience,  how  far  he 
is  to  enlarge  or  reduce  the  numbers  and  kinds  of  his 
live-rtock. 

"  In  many  fituations,  fays  j\fr.  Toung,  the  de- 
"  pendance  of  a  farm  for  manure,  is  on  the  (Iraw- 
"  yard.  If  in  that  cafe  the  fanner  does  not  proper- 
"  ly  proportion  his  arable  crops  which  feed  cattle,  to 
"  thofe  which  Utter  the  yard,  and  both  thefe  to  the 
"  quantity  of  his  grafs  fields,  the  farm  will  be  long 
"  before  it  gets  well  manured."* 

How  advantageous  for  acquiring  dungy  fo  eifen- 
tial  for  preferving  the  produ£Uve  powers  of  the 
earth,  is  the  praftice  of  keeping  cattle  up  in  yards, 
well  littered — How  much  more  fo  the  keeping  them 
up  in  houfes,  littered  the  year  through ! — efpecially^ 
when  they  are  fed  with  green  food  cut  for  them  in 
fummcry  and  juicy  roots  and  drank  with  their  dry- 
food,  in  ivinter  :  but  cattle  may  be  advantageoufly 
kept  without  having  any  litter^  provided  they  are  in 
flails  in  houfes,  tied  up,  and  their  floor  daily  clean* 
ed  \  as  Mr.  Bakewell  a  long  while  kept  his. 

BARNS. 

*  Better  to  depend  on  xhtjlall  and  houfe  ,■  where  lilier  may 
bf  diiperJlJ  with,  and  flock  incrcar^d. 


134  BARNS, 

BARNS. 

Farmers  in  Pennfylvauia  have  a  commendable 
fpirit  for  building  good  barns,  which  are  moftly  of 
flone.  On  the  ground  floor  are  flails  in  which  their 
horfes  and  oxen  are  fed  with  hay,  cut-ftraw,  and 
rye-meal ;  but  not  always  their  other  beafts.*  Roots 
are  feldom  given  to  their  live-flock,  being  too  little 
thought  of.  The  fecond  floor  with  the  roof,  con- 
tains their  flieaves  of  grain,  which  are  thrafhed  on 
this  floor.  A  part  of  their  hay  is  alfo  here  flored. 
Loaded  carts  and  waggons  are  driven  in,  on  this  fe- 
conid  floor ;  with  which  the  furface  of  the  earth  is 
there  level ;  or  elfe  a  bridge  is  built  up  to  it,  for 
f^jpplying  the  want  of  height  in  the  bank,  the  wall 
of  one  end  of  the  houfe  being  built  ck>fe  to  the 
bank  of  a  hill  cut  down.  For  giving  room  to  turn 
waggons  within  the  houfe,  it  is  built  thirty-fix  to 
forty  feet  wide :  and  the  length  is  given  that  may- 
be requifite  to  the  defign  or  fize  of  the  farm.     But 

if 

*  "  Barly,  fays  Sonnini,  is  the  common  food  of  kor/es  in 
*'  Egypt,  as  it  is  in  all  parts  of  the  Eaft,  where  rye  and  oats 
*>  are  unknown.  However  prejudiced  our  farmers  (in  France) 
*'  may  be  againft  barley  as  a  food  for  horfes,  they  cannot 
"  jivoid  being  convinced  of  its  excellence  in  this  refpeft,  v/hen 
**  they  confider  that  in  the  countries  where  thefe  animals  are 
"  mofl  eminent  for  tiaeir  goodnefs  and  beauty,  they  eat  no 
*'  other  kind  of  corn." 


BARNS.  135 

if  the  waggon  is  driven  direftly-  into  the  barn,  it 
may  be  as  direftly  drawn  back  without  turning  it— 
a  great  faving  of  room  ;  and  the  houfe  need  not  be 
fo  wide  as  for  the  fake  of  turning  waggons  in  it. 
If  waggons  carry  more  to  the  barn  at  a  time,  yet 
carts  are  briiker :  their  loads  are  Ihot  down  in  an 
inftant.  and  they  turn  fliort.  Waggons  are  tedi- 
oufly  unloaded. 

I  have  fecn  a  barn,  in  Chefler  county,  Pennfylva- 
nia,  which  had  a  cellar  under  a  floor  of  planks  on 
joifts,  on  which  horfes  and  oxen  flood  ;  and  their 
dung  was  daily  fliovelled  into  the  cellar.  The  farmer 
faid  this  dung  is  the  better  for  being  thus  kept  dry : 
but,  may  it  not  be  there  too  dry  F  Dung  drowned 
with  water  mud  be  much  injured.  But  if  a  deep 
mafs  of  dung  receives  no  more  water  than  what  falls 
on  its  furface  from  the  clouds,  and  is  well  flieltered 
from  the  fun,  is  it  then  injured  ?  Is  it  better  or  worfc 
for  being  rotten  before  it  is  applied  to  the  ground 
as  a  manure  ?  If  firfl  rotted,  it  will  fprcad  and  mix 
wirh  the  foil  more  perfec'tly.  If  but  partly  rotted, 
and  then  fpread  and  plowed  into  the  ground,  inftantly 
as  it  is  carted  out,  will  it  not  be  flronger — more  pow- 
erful in  opening  and  enriching  the  foil  ?  It  there 
finiflies  its  heat  and  fermentation,  which  precede  and 
bring  forward  rottcnnefs,  whilft  it  is  in  the  ground.* 

There 

*  The  4  E.  Tour,  453.  fpcaks  of  dung  being  put  uj)  in  a 
fmall  compafs,  or  coiupaft  mafs,  that  thc/un,  ti-ifii  and  ruin. 


f^6  BARNS. 


J 


There  are  not  many  inflances  of  flieds  tacked  to 
their  modern  barns.  Their  mode  of  buildine,  of 
late,  does  not  well  admit  of  them  ;  and  room  is  gain- 
ed by  all  being  under  one  roof,  covering  one  or  more 
flories,  having  deep  fides  or  pitch.  The  roof  is  a 
coflly  part  of  buildings :  but  it  cofts  no  more  to  cover 
three  or  four  ftorics  than  one. 

Their  barns  on  the  fides  of  hills  (which  they  chie^y 
prefer)  may  be  built  three  flories  high,  inftead  of 
the  ufual  two  flories.  Cut  down  the  hill  perpendi- 
cularly feven  or  eight  feet,  and  build  up  one  end  of 
the  barn  clofe  to  the  bank.  The  other  walls  are  to 
be  quite  free  and  airy  from  bottom  to  top.  The 
ground  flory  feven  or  eigbt  feet  high  j  the  next  thir- 
teen 

may  have  but  little  power  over  it,  to  do  it  mifchief.  Of  thefe, 
the  fun  exhales  without  its  rays  adding  any  knov/ii  virtue  to 
the  dung ;  and  the  rain  when  in  excefs,  would  rob  it  by  too 
great  dilution  and  wafiiing  av/ay  Its  fubfliance  :  but  the  atmos- 
pheric air  might  impart  to  ifc^on^e  of  its  rich  combinations. 
For  making  gunpov/der,  nitye  is  coUeded  ia  beds  of  ftraw, 
earth  and  rubbifh,  raifed  in  thin  banks  or  walls  above  the 
ground,  expofed  to  the  air  ;  and  ftieltered  only  from  /un  and 
rain.  From  fuch  ihi»  majfes,  rains  would  wafii  out  the  nutritive 
ftores,  and  the  fun  would  exhale  them.  But,  would  v.-hat  my 
ftercories  receive  of  rain,  foaked  into  a  large  deep  majs  of  dung, 
injure  the  dung,  when  there  is  fcarcely  more  than  with  the 
urine  may  be  reqQifite  for  producing  a  fermentation  in  the 
dung  and  litter  ?  If  dry  dung  is  applied  to  a  dry  foil,  it  cannot 
ferijncnt  tilj  a  fufficisncy  of  rain  fiills  on  it. 


BARNS'.  I35[ 

tften  feet— the  third  alfo  thirteen  feet ;  into  whidi 
grain  in  the  ftraw  is  pitched  up,  and  there  thniilied 
out.     If  the  bank  is  not  fo  high  as  the  fecond  floor, 
or  if  there  is  no  bank,  lay  a  bridge  up  to  that  floor. 
The  width  of  the  barn  being  thirty-fix  feet  clear,  a 
paiTage  in  the  middle,  eleven  or  twelve  feet  wide, 
will  leave  a  range  of  cattle-flands  on  each  fide  of  it^; 
The  cattle  are  fed  from  the  paflage ;  and  there  fl:raw 
is  cut  and  meal  fl:ored.     The  doors  are  one  to  every 
two  flails  or  four  beafts.     They  may  be  latticed,  or 
othcrwife  airy :  and  at  the  end  of  the  paflage  next 
the  bank,  may  be  a  door  opening  into  a  vault  exca- 
vated from  the  bank,  for  keeping  rooLs.     The  dung 
may  be  thrown  into  a  fl^rcory  ten  feet  from  the  doors. 
There  will  be  no  occafion  for  carts  pafllng  between 
the  range  of  doors  and  the  dung  pit  or  ftercory. 
All  is  carted  and  flored  on  the  barn  floor,  after  paflf- 
ine  in  at  the  end  door  of  the  fecond  floor.     The 
llercory  may  be  covered  with  whatever  may  flielter 
the  dung  from  ihefwi,  although  it  fliould  fuffer  niins 
to  pafs  through  the  covering :   but  no  other  rain  or 
water  is  to  have  accefs  to  the  dung  ;  yet  urine  is  to 
be  faved  and  thrown  on  it.     One  end  of  the  fl:crcory 
or  pit  may  be  open,  where  a  hill  will  admit  of  let- 
ting carts  in.    Air  is  admitted  into  the  barn  through 
long  loopholes  in  the  walls,  rather  than  windows. 
A  good  thunder  rod,  half  an  inch  diameter,  infures 
the  barn  againft  injury  from  lightning  at  the  cofl:  of 
]efs  than  fifty  cents  a  year. 

A 


t^B  BARNS. 

A  flone  barn,  lately  built  inPhiladelptua  countyj 
has  its  ground  flory  loi  feet  high  ;  the  next  19  feet, 
and  the  third  14  feet.  Waggons  are  driven  into  the 
fecond  flory.  Seven  feet  are  high  enough  for  homed 
cattle.  Horfes  require  more  height ;  and  there  are 
mconveniencies  in  keeping  horfes  and  horned  cattle 
in  the  fame  houfe.  The  conflrucrion  of  their  refpec- 
tive  houfes  flaould  be  adapted  to  their  feverai  pur- 
pofcs. 

A  foreigner  aiks,  if  fleam  from  the  perfpiration 
and  breath  of  the  cattle,  clofe  houfed,  would  not 
taint  the  hay  and  flraw  on  the  floor  above  them  ^ 
and  if  the  houfe  being  built  up  againft  the  bank 
would  not  occafion  an  injurious  dampnefs  to  the 
grain,  the  ftraw  and  the  hay  r  1  have  heard  no  com- 
plaint of  either,  and  prefume  there  is  no  caufe  for 
any  in  a  country  of  fo  dry  an  air ;  efpecially  as  thefe 
ilone  barns,  built  againft  banks,  ilored  with  cattle 
oa  the  ground-floor,  and  containing  grain,  flraw, 
and  hay,  on  the  upper-floor,  continue  to  be  pre- 
ferred. 

r 

It  is  faid  that  cattle  are  kept  very  clofe  and  zl-jftti 
in  their  houfes  in  Brabant  and  parts  oi  Germany.  I 
never  knew  of  out-cattle  fuitering  materially  by  mere 
cold,  unattended  with  raiHy  wetfncrjj  or  Jleet.  But 
as  often  as  they  experience  thefe,  their  wretched- 
nefs  claims  compaflion  :  and  the  owner,  feeling  for 

himfelf 


CATTLE-STALLS.  I39 

hiinfelf  as  well  as  for  the  beafls  committed  to  his  care, 
at  fome  time  or  other  may  rcfolutely  practife  giving 
them  ducjhc/ier  and  attention  ;  and  thereby  profit  of 
the  increafe  of  /iiill:,  of  labour,  of  meat,  and  of  dungy 
if  not  alfo  of  felf  fatisfaftion  on  feeinor  them  throusrh 
his  provident  induflry  in  comfortable  good  plight,  in 
no  want. 

Whatever  the  number  oi  floors  or  ilories  are,  the 
bank  is  not  to  be  higher  than  to  the  fecond  floor, 
which  is  immediately  above  the  cattle  floor  :  fo  that 
the  bank  is  never  more  than  feven  or  eight  feet  high; 
and  to  that  height  at  the  mod:,  one  end  of  the  bam 
is  attached  to  the  bank.  In  Cheftcr  county,  I  have 
feen  where  a  bank  was  cut  down  three  or  four  feet, 
and  a  bridge  for  waggons  was  from  the  top  of  it  four 
or  five  feet  more,  to  the  fecond  floor  of  the  bara. 
See  Plate  II. 

CATTLE-STALLS. 

On  this  particular  is  here  given  what  I  have  col- 
letted  of  ]Mr.  Bjkczceirs  method  of  houfing  his  cat- 
tle, from  the  Annals  of  Agriculture,  or  from  Jo.bn 
Burnet  who  was  fenc  to  America  by  l^.Ir.  Bakewell 
with  cattle,  a  few  years  fince. 

Mr.  Bake-icell  keeps  his  cattle  in  houfes :  in  which 
a  paflTage  is  at  the  heads  of  them,  to  feed  from. 
The  troughs  out  of  which  they  eat  their  hay  or 

turnips 


140  CATTLE-STALLS. 

turnips  (I  prefume  alfo  their  draw,  for  he  feed* 
largely  v^ith  flraw^  are  2^  feet  wide  at  top,  and  flope 
to  the  bottom  which  is  of  brick,  three  feet  long, 
eight  or  nine  inches  deep.  The  bottom  of  brick  is 
on  the  ground.  No  rack.  Every  flali  is  fix  feet 
wide  for  two  cows :  eight  for  two  bull?.  In  each 
corner  of  the  flails  is  a  fmooth  poft,  with  a  ring 
Jarger  than  the  poll  for  Aiding  up  and  down.  A 
chain,  not  a  foot  long,  connefts  with  the  ring,  and 
alfo  with  a  chain  collar  round  the  bead's  neck,  which 
locks  with  a  T.  The  cattle  can  but  jufl:  reach  their 
food  next  to  the  divifion  between  the  two  beafls. 
Three  feet  for  each  cow  are  better  than  more  room: 
in  which  they  lye  down.  More  fpace  would  admit 
of  their  dirtying  each  other.  Their  (landing  is  fix 
feet :  and  behind  is  a  ftep  five  or  fix  inches  down 
to  where  the  dung  falls.  The  houfe  is  cleaned  once 
a  day ;  and  the  cattle  are  driven  twice  to  water. 
He  has  forty-five  in  one  place  fo  tied  up :  and  they 
are  fed  and  taken  care  of  by  a  man  and  a  boy. 

Cows  In  milk  are  fiot  to  want  water.  In  the 
American  climate  they  ought  to  be  watered  three 
times  a  day  in  fumm.er.  Their  water  ought  to  be 
near.  Drivirxg  cows  any  diftance  is  very  injurious 
to  their  milk.  In  England,  dairy  cows  are  faid  to 
give  from  200  to  4oolb  of  butter.  Do  the  Ameri- 
can give  ICO  to  2C0  ?   Many  attentions  are reqnifite 

for 


CATTLE     PASTUAED    life.  I4I 

for  obtaining  much  butter,  or  good  butter — and  alfo 
much  and  good  milk. 

In  plate  111.  is  a  /ketch  of  Mr.  BakewelFs  flails ; 
which  are  without  racks ;  the  manger  is  therefore  the 
wider  :  alfo  a  iketch  of  a  flail  drawn  by  a  gentleman 
lately  from  Yorkfhire ;  which  has  a  rack  leaning 
with  its  back  part  in  the  feeding  pafTage ;  a  trough 
for  food ;  afpace  for  the  cattle  to  fland  in  ;  a  fink 
for  receiving  their  dung  ;  and  a  way  behind  the  cat- 
tle. Lord  Holdernefs's  fink  to  his  cattle  houfe  is 
faid  to  be  without  any  drain ;  fo  that  the  dung, 
wrinc,  and  refufe  fcraps  of  hay  are  all  mixed  there, 
and  harrowed  away  from  it,  together,  to  the  dung- 
hill ;  which  feems  a  good  pra^ice,  at  leaft  where  fer- 
vants  cannot  be  depended  on  for  fsving  the  urine  fe- 
paracely,  and  then  carrying  it  to  the  dunghill. 

Catik  Pastured  and  Soiled  in  Summer :  Kept  and  Jfat,* 
tened  in  Winter  : 

In  fome  of  nTy  little  effays,  are  intimations  of  m<> 
thods  for  keeping  and  feeding  Irve-flock,  very  differ- 
ent from  the  ufual  pra^llces  of  hufbandmen  j  bu^ 
being  concife  or  in  notes,  they  are  too  obfcure  to  be 
attended  to.  The  fubjecl  claims  attention,  from 
farmers  accuflomed  to  think  with.a  defire  to  iraprove» 
Such  particulars  thereon  as  at  prefeoL  occur,  are 
therefore  prefented  to  the  confideratign  of  thU  clal^ 
vf  luvIbaHdnicii*  .  ^  ' 

A? 


142         CATTLE     PASTURED    AND     SOILED: 

As  well  grain  as  grafs  farms  maintain  live-flock : 
but  their  kinds,  Czc  and  number  proportionate  to  the 
means  of  fubfiflence  are  not  fufficiently  attended  to  ; 
nor  are  the  modes  of  keeping  them,  and  faving  their 
manure.  They  are  commonly  raifed  on  the  farm : 
But,  fometimes  are  bought  full  grown,  of  drovers  j 
and  grazed  in  paftures. 

The  common  farmer's  live-flock  runs  on  a  fort  of 
paflure  during  fix  or  feven  months.  In  the  reft  of 
the  year  they  are  kept  entirely  on  dry  food,  at  leafl 
in  Maryland.  Who  among  our  farmers  ever  think 
of  procuring  3.  Juicy  winter  food,  for  tempering  the 
coftive  effcfts  of  dry  draw  and  maize  fodder  eaten 
by  -their  cattle  r  yuin'  food  in  general  terxds  to  keep- 
their  bodies  open,  their  fkins  and  mnfcles  mellow, 
pliant  and  eafy  for  their  better  thriving.  Hence 
the  fine  eSFecl:  of  root  and  turnip-feeding,  fo  highly 
Tallied  by  European  farmers. 

It  is  faid,  cows  require  in  England,  from  one  to 
two  acres  of  paflure  :  but  the  medium  of  a  number 
of  inftances  is  found  to '  be  one  and  a  third  acre. 
Their  paflures  are  ?rutck  by  fowing  grafs  feeds  after 
the  grotmd  has  been  a  number  of  years  producing 
crops  ameliorating  as  well  as  exhaufting,  under  manur- 
vigs  and  good  tillage.  They  continue  many  years  af- 
terwards in  grafs,  carefiiUy  cleared  of  brambles  and 
ilrong  weeds.  During  the  ten  or  twenty  yeais  of 
^  their 


KEPT    AND    FATTENED.  I45 

t"heir  being  paftured,  the  cattle  drop  their  dung,  fcat- 
tered  and  left  expofed  on  the  ground  to  exhauHiion  by 
fun  and  wind.  If  the  foil  obtains  any  good  from  it, 
yet  the  continual  treading  (wheat  foil)  by  the  beads 
paftured,  reduces  it  in  deadening  and  untilling  the 
foil.  Neverthelefs,  in  fo  long  lying  unimpoveriftied 
by  renewed  corii  crops,  the  ground  may  be  partly 
reftored  from  conftant  though  flow  depofits  from  the 
atmofphere,  rather  than  from  the  dung  dropt. 

Have  our  American  lay-fields  equal  advantages  ? 
Very  frequent  returns  of  corn  crops  of  different  forts 
have  robbed  the  ground,  generally  ivithoiit  any  appli' 
cation  of  manure :  the  ground  is  then  left  to  a  fpon- 
tancous  growth  of  weeds  and  a  four  or  poor  gi^afs, 
which  give  what  farmers  of  eafc  and  pleafure  con- 
tentedly deem  good  enough  pafture.  On  this  their 
ill  fated  horfes,  cows,  oxen,  and  flieep  are  promif- 
cuouHy  turned  early  in  the  feafon  before  there  is  a 
bite :  but  they  nibble  off  the  fcanty  growth  of  rub- 
bifli  as  it  rifes.  Here  they  continue  till  winter: 
fometimes  through  the  winter  j  fo  that  the  ground 
becomes  poached  and  trod  to  a  dead  clofencfs.  The 
dung  dropt  is  but  of  one  or  two  years,  towards  re- 
ftoring  the  foil,  when  corn  crops  ai-e  renewed,  and 
reduce  it  flill  lov/er.  The  acquifitiou  from  detach- 
ed fcraps  of  expofed  dung  and  from  the  flow  effect 
of  the  atmofphcre,  in  tlrat  flior^  time,  is  trifling  :  far 

flacrt 


144  CATTLE  PASTURED  AND  SOILED  : 

fliort   of  repairing  the  wafle,  from  poaching'  and 
quick  returns  of  corn  crops.* 

Oppofed  to  our  unmade  pailures,  are  the  7nade' 
puflurcs  of  Europe  and  fome  parts  of  America  :  and 
oppofed  to  all  pasturing,  h  foiling.  Soiling  is  com- 
mon in  Flanders,  and  is  advancing  iiito  cxtenfivc  ufe 
in  Germany  and  in  England.  It  is  to  the  prefent 
purpofe  that  thefe  pracl:ices  and  their  effects  be  com.- 
pared. 

Advantages  mpasiurifig^  that  rich  grafs  paflure 
Iceeps  grown  cattle  at  the  rate  of  one  acre  to  a  bead,- 
during  the  fix  or  feven  warmer  months  :  common 
pailure,  at  the  rate  oi  two  acres  to  a  beaii.  Attend- 
ance on  them  in  pafture  is  very  little.  They  range 
at  pleafure  and  drop  their  manure  on  the  field,  fo 
that  labpur  in  heaping,  caning  out  and  fpreading  it 
is  faved.  The  difadvantagcs  are,  the  grafs  and  the 
ground  are  trod  and  reduced  in  value  :  the  paftures 
require  codly  divifion  fences  :  the  dung  is  fcaitered 
on  the  ground,  expofed  to  exhalation  and  wafle  by 
fun  and  wind,  fo  as  to  be  nearly  worthlefs :  the 

horfea 

*  Witlings  may  fancy  diey  fee  a  palpable  contradidion  bc» 
fvreen  quick  returns  of  corn  crops  as  here  mentioned,  fo  greatly 
Irnpoverilliing  and  as  they  are  rccommer.ded  ill  the  rotations. 
Eiit,  their  genius  forbids  them  to  fee  the  differenqe  between 
<T06d  culture  ivith  manures  and  iaterven'ing  ameUQrat'ing  or  mild 
:iopy  and  bad  culture  withovt  manures  or  araelioratirg  ctops> 


Kept   and   fattened.  145 

horfes  and  oxen  are  driven  to  the  flable  with  much 
waflc  of  time,  and  feme  vexation  and  conlequent 
abufe. 

The  advantages  o^ foiling  are  that  the  ground  re- 
quires but  few  or  no  divifion  fences :  grown  cattle 
are  kept  at  the  rate  of  a  fourth  part  of  an  acre  to  a 
beaft,  during  the  fix  warmer  months ;  their  manure 
is  all  well  preferved,  and  given  to  the  foil  when  and 
where  it  is  mofl  wanted,  and  in  the  beft  condition ; 
the  foil  is  untrod  and  left  mellow  and  lively :  the 
horfes,  oxen,  and  cows  are  always  up,*  ready  for 
ufe  without  lofs  of  time  :  they  are  kept  cool,  fliaded 
and  lefs  worried  by  flies  :  they  acquire  good  coats 
and  full  flefh,  on  a  Icfs  expenfe  of  food.  When  it 
is  objected  to  the  laying  afide  divifion  fences,  that 
there  would  be,  at  times,  bad  fcafons  when  grafs 
could  not  be  cut  and  carried  in,  becaufe  of  great  rains, 
or  of  cold  drying  w^inds  which  check  the  growth  of 
grafs,  fo  that  it  would  be  requifitc  there  fhould  be 

K  fome 

*  Except  that  for  a  few  hours,  after  diey  are  returned  to  the 
ftalls  on  the  morning  watering,  being  then  well  emptied,  they 
may  be  let  out  to  ftrolc  and  rub  thcmfelves  in  the  flirm -yard  ; 
from  1 1  o'clock  till  3,  then  put  up  in  the  flails  ;  by  which  they 
will  not  have  time  to  drop  much  dung  in  the  yard :  and 
what  is  there  di'opt  fhould  be  harrowed  to  the  flercory.  Car- 
ried immediately  to  the  ftalls,  after  being  watered,  they  dung 
and  flale  plentifully  in  the  flails  :  then  being  turned  out  they 
do  not  dung  much  whillt  in  the  yard.  Rubbing  pofls  may  ht 
provided. 


146        CATTLE    PASTURED    AND  SOILED  : 

fome  fields  divided  oiF  for  the  beads  to  run  on  at  thofe 
times,  the  anfwer  is  that  there  is  another  way  of 
providing  for  the  cattle,  and  that  much  better  than 
by  pafluring  them.  In  towns  we  fee  horfes  and 
cattle  are  kept  up  on  hay  and  straw  the  year  round, 
and  that  it  agrees  with  them.  A  quantity  of  hay 
is  therefore  to  be  kept  in  ftore,  as  a  provifion  against 
fuch  untoward  feafens  as  fliall  deprive  the  beads  of 
their  mefs  of  cut  grafs ;  and  they  ifiay  be  tethered, 
as  Mr.  Boys  tethers  his  fine  horfes.  See  the  note 
page  154.  Prudent  farmers  deem  it^equifite  always 
to  have  fome  jftock  of  old  hay.* 

A 

*  Befides,  as  Mr.  Duplaine  advlfes,  maize  is  to  be  fown 
thick,  3  to  34  bufhels  an  acre,  harrowing  the  ground  even, 
■when  the  taflels  fiioot,  mow  and  cure  it  into  fodder.  Or  cut  if 
daily  and  give  ii  green  to  cattle.  9  Muf.  253.  And  in  foiling 
or  ftall  feeding  during  fummer,  on  clever  cut  green,  for  fupply- 
ing  the  deficiency  of  clover  during  dry  bad  feafons,  befides 
feeding  with  /uy  and  hihcring,  we  may  have  made  other  pro- 
vilion  by  fowing  maize  bioad-caft  and  thick  on  manured  or 
rich  ground  in  April,  in  May  and  in  June,  and  cut  and  feed 
U'itli  it  occafionally  as  a  green  fodder  :  the  remaining  maize 
notfo  ufed  may  be  cut  and  cured  into  dry  fodder.  The  Ita- 
lians praftife  fuch  thick  fowing  and  feeding  off  the  green  maize ; 
and  fometimes  the  blades  are  ftripped  and  given  green  to  cat- 
tle, from  the  maize  growing  to  produce  a  crop  of  corn.  If 
the  maize  be  fovv-n  in  drills  14  inches  apart,  and  the  corn  about 
5  inches  diflant  in  tlie  drills,  a  fhim  of  10  or  11  inches  blade, 
would  clean  and  cultivate  the  maize  well,  drawn  by  one  horfe. 
Moreover,  buciivhat  is  to  be  fown,  and  tlic  herbage  given  as 
a  grafs  ;  and  it  is  f;iid  to  admit  of  being  cut  Uvice. 


KEPT    AND    FATTENED.  I47 

A  farmer  pastures  his  ftock :  his  neighbour  foils 
his.  Each  has  32  head  of  grown  horfes,  oxen,  and 
cows. 

Pastured  32,  at  2  a.  of  common  pailure 

each,         -         .         -         -  64  acr. 

Soiled  32,  at  an  acre  of  cut  grafs  to  4 

beads         -         -         -         -  8 

gained  ^6  a.  hy  foiling ;  which  will  keep  224  cattle : 
or  give  140  tons  of  hay^  worth  1400  dollars. 

Accounts  given  of  C2l\.\t  foiled  in  England,  make 
the  beads  foiled  to  be  4  to  6  head  from  an  acre  of 
cut  clover.  Mr.  Wynn  Baker,  who  was  an  accurate 
experimenter,  found  an  acre  kept  five  head,  the  grafs 
partly  cut  from  head-lands.*  A  farmer  in  England 
foiled  20  horfes  and  7  cows,  from  7  acres  of  clover, 
without  giving  any  corn  or  hay.  He  clofely  watch- 
ed the  management  of  his  tenant  with  the  fame  num- 
ber of  flock  pastured  in  a  field  ;  and  it  proved  that 
one  acre  mown  went  as  far  as  fix  paflured.  When 
his  beads  had  eaten  5  acres,  the  tenant's  had  con- 
fumed  30  acres,  and  his  horfes  were  in  inferior  con- 
dition. 

When  foiling  is  recommended,  farmers  having  in- 
veterate habits,  or  who  are  driving  after  plcafures, 

K  2  equally 

*    See  the  note  *  page  nz. 


I4B        CATTLE     PASTURED     AND     SOILED": 

equally  check  all  that  might  be  faid,  by  vehemently 
objecting  to  the  labour  and  expenfe  of  cutting,  cart- 
ing and  giving  the  grafs  to  the  beafts  ;  and  the  far- 
mer of  lounging  habits,  ever  feeking  for  fiort  cuts  and 
even  for  ?iothing  to  do,  can  never  find  time  for  clean- 
ing flails  and  faving  and  carrying  out  dung,  cffential 
as  they  are.* 

A  man  and  a  boy  perform  all  the  work  and  at- 
tendance in  foiling  40  to  50  beafls.  Thq^  cut  grafs, 
enough  in  the  morning  for  fhe  evening  feed  ;  let  it 
lay  to  deaden  a  little,  and  cart  it  in,  in  the  evening. 
So  the  morning  feed  is  cut  in  the  evening  to  be  car- 
ried in,  in  the  morning.  Suppofing  all  the  work 
performed  in  3  hours  of  the  morning,  and  3  of  the 
evening,  there  then  remains  6  hours  for  other  work. 
The  expenfe  of  the  man  and  boy  is  therefore  but  one 
half  chargeable  to  the  foiling  account :  but  even  let 
them  be  8  hours  employed  in  foiling,  or  two-thirds 
the  expenfe. 

Reckoning 

*  He  is  a  bad  farmer  who  feeks  for  nothing  to  do.  A  good 
farmer  knows  how  to  accomplilh  the  ordinary  round  of  work, 
and  it  is  without  grudging  full  labour  for  having  it  complete. 
The  {hort  cut  which  would  do  it  but  fomehow,  and  not  per- 
feftly,  he  fpums  at.  AVhen  all  this  is  done,  with  pleafure,  he 
feeks  to  improve  the  eftate  :  whilPc  others  feek  pleafure  abroad, 
and  all  goes  to  ruin  at  horn:;. 


KEPT    AND     FATTENED.  149 

Reckoning  on  only  32  head,  they  give  per  year  Dols. 

320  loads  of  rich  manure  300 

Time  daily  faved  in  catching  the  beafts  ;  foil 
left  untrodandhvely;  gentlenefs  and  do- 
cility of  the  beafts,  value  40 

Wages  and  expcnfcs,  a  man  and  boy,  a  year 

200,  off  I  140 

Gain,  in  foiling,     .     .     .  56  acres,  or  140  tons 

of  hay,  value  1400 

1740 
140 


ISTet  gain  i6co 

Will  you  fptirn  at  the  oiFer  of  1600  dollars  that 
you  may  avoid  paying  wages  and  expcnfes  of  a  man 
or  two  ?  Thefe  herdfmen  would  be  rcquifite  for  win- 
ier  feeding,  cleaning  Halls  and  faving  manure,  even 
if  the  beafts  were  paftured  in  fummer  inftead  of  be- 
ing foiled.  How  little  then  is  chargeable  to  the 
foiling ! 

It  is  in  this  cafe  unwife  to  fufFer  the  mind  to  be 
bialTed  by  apprehenfions  of  expenfes  which  evidently 
mufl  be  greatly  below  the  benefit  acquired.  Let 
us  make  trials  of  this  new  method  of  managing  cat- 
tle :  fuppofe  at  firft  our  horfes  and  oxen  fo  kept. 
How  docile,  how  well  flefhed,  what  healthy  coats, 
and  what  a  valuable  quantity  of  manure  of  the  riched 
and  moft  perfect:  kind  on  the  fpot ! 

Many 


150        CATTLE    PASTURED    AND    SOILED: 

Many  harfes  are  kept  up,  in  towns,  the  year 
through  J  except  only  whilfl  they  are  employed  :  and 
all  cattle  thrive  better,  on  lefs  food,  when  tied  up 
than  when  at  large  in  fields.  Even  flieep  are  fo 
kept.  The  celebrated  Mr.  Bakewell,  lately  deceaf- 
ed,  tied  up  his  favorites,  at  leafh  during  winter  :  I 
believe  too  his  cholcefl  rams  were  tied  up  the  year 
through,  except  for  the  moment  of  giving  them  the 
ewes,  to  run  together  in  a  lot,  for  they  were  not  to 
be  feen  out  at  other  times.  In  keeping  Jheep  up, 
they  ought  to  have  room,  and  much  frefh  air  in  fe- 
parate  apartments,  according  to  their  ages  and  fexes, 
allowing  to  ewes  with  lamb  a  great  portion  of 
room.* 

Fancy  induces  a  pretty  current  fuppofition  that  all 
animals  require  fome  confiderable  range  and  change 
of  place  ;  which  indeed,  as  far  as  for  the  feeking 
food,  difperfed  as  it  is  in  their  wild  flate,  is  true. 
The  exercife  of  their  legs  and  their  wings  is  fo  far 
efpecially  necelTary  to  them,  as  well  as  for  avoiding 
their  enemies.  But,  experience  proves  that  they 
exifl  in  perfeft  health  and  good  plight  when  clofely 
confined,  in  no  want  of  food,  as  long  for  aught 
that  is  known  as  if  they  had  continued  at  large  in 
their  wild  flate.  Cattle,  horfes,  and  hogs  prove 
this  in  many  countries :  and  the  horfe,   like  the 

deer, 

*  Of  houilr.g  and  foiling  fheep,  fee  raga  (i$. 


KEPT    AND    FATTENED.  I51 

deer,  is  of  a  very  active,  wild,  and  roving  nature. 
Sheep  are  efpecially  imagined  to  require  fucli  Ihift- 
ing  of  place  :  which  may  have  arifen  from  the  very 
early  and  general  pyaftice  of  letting  them  pafture  at 
large.  They  are  in  flocks  commonly  too  numerous 
to  be  conveniently  houfed,  and  being  hardy  are  not 
thought  to  require  it.  But  above  all  the  habit, 
continued  down  from  the  firfl  of  time,  of  people 
called  fhepherds  (trolling  after  flocks  of  them,  for 
the  fake  of  fcattered  fpontaneous  food,  is  the  prin- 
cipal fupport  of  the  fuppofliion.  On  the  other  hand, 
it  is  proved  by  the  practices  of  the  hufbandmen  of 
Flanders  and  other  countries,  that  flieep  thrive 
well  when  kept  up  in  houfes  the  year  through : 
even  the  heath  fov^l,  fo  wild  and  roving  as  they  are, 
have  been  domeflicated,  under  a  degree  of  confine- 
ment very  oppofite  to  their  habits  in  their  wild  fl:ate. 
A  gentleman  of  Scotland,  and  his  lady,  of  high 
confideration,  inform  me,  that  they  have  feen  the 
black  cock  of  that  country,  in  the  tame  flate  in  a 
yard.  A  Mr.  Lewis  Duval,  formerly  of  Hawl- 
ing's  a  branch  of  Patuxent  river,  Maryland,  afllir- 
ed  me  that  he  had  groufe  quite  tame  in  his  yard, 
and  that  they  raifed  young  ones.  Their  manner  of 
courtfliip  as  related  by  him  was  Angular.  The  male 
was  long  in  making  his  advances  and  coaxing  the 
hen,  in  vain  till  he  fuddenly  turned  on  his  back, 
flirieked,    and  quivered  his  wings  as  if  in  a  fit  of 

agony. 


152        CATTLE    PASTURED    AND    SOILED! 

agony.     She  then  came  up  to  him,  walked  round 
and  looked  on  him  with  fecming  compallion. 

Without  knowing  the  quantity  of  cut  grafs  that 
beafts  may  daily  require,  75tb  are  afTumcd  ;  which 
quantity  would  cure  into  171^  of  hay  ;  but  it  may 
be  that  lefs  of  green  grafs  would  cloy  them  than 
what  might  when  cured  into  a  feed  of  hay. 

It  is  faid,  2  8tb  of  green  clover  cut  fmall  and  mix- 
ed with  i4rt)  of  flraw  cut  into  chaff  eqnal  to  i/lb  of 
hay  are  a  feed  for  a  day  to  one  bead:  ;  equal  to  751b 
of  green  clover  alone :  what  a  faving  of  clover !  But  in 
the  feafon  of  foiling,  clover  is  plentier  than  draw ; 
and  flraw  is  an  eflential  in  winter  :  fo  that  Sib  or  lefs 
of  llraw  and  40  of  clover  may  be  better.  "When 
4^ft  of  green  clover  cures  into  one  of  hay,  281&  arc 
equal  to  6\  of  hay  :  to  which  add  141b  of  flraw  ; 
the  whole  is  equal  to  20 i  of  dry  food.  But  the 
flraw  is  inferior  to  the  fame  quantity  of  hay ;  and 
jy'tb  of  hay  is  a  good  allowance  to  full  grown  hearts 
per  day.  As  much  flraw  cut  and  mixt  with  green 
clover  as  will  but  improve  the  cud,  is  fufEcient  ; 
and  it  feems  Slfe  of  flraw  to  40  of  green  clover  will 
anfwer,  or  even  lefs  :  for  clover  alone  anfwers  for 
the  purpofe  of  rumination,  though  not  fo  well  as 
when  aided  by  flraw  or  hay. 

A  Table 


JKEPT    AND    FATTENED. 


^53 


A  Table   of  Food  for  a   Day^ 
Cattle, 


in  Soiling  Grown 


Bcafts. 

Clover 

Clover  & 

alone. 

ftraw. 

I 

lb 

7S 

C  c.40 
I    S.  8 

10 

750 

C  400 
I       80 

20 

1500 

C     800 

I    160 

30 

2250 

C   1200 

d    240 

40 

3000 

C   1600 

I    320 

50 

3750 

C  2000 

The  herdfmen  ought 
to  know  how  much 
clover  and  flraw  to 
cut  and  give  daily ; 
that  there  may  be 
enough  without  wade. 
If  not  enough  the 
beads  fuffer :  if  too 
much  of  green  clover 
or  grafs  is  cut  and 
brought  in,  lying  in 
a  heap  it  ferments,  turns  four  and  is  loft.  Till 
herdfmen  are  well  pra(fl:ifed,  it  may  be  well  that 
they  meafure  each  mefs,  and  chalk  down  how  much 
a  bafket  and  cart  body  hold  of  the  articles,  in 
weight.  The  pradice  will  at  leaft  have  a  defirable 
tendency  of  leading  fervants  to  obferve  method ;  the  ^ 
value  whereof  is  conliderable  in  all  bulinefs.  With- 
out method^  random  flights  predominate  and  divert 
employment  from  its  beft  objects  to  unimportant  or 
wafteful  purpofes. 

On  the  fuppofition  that  751b.  of  green  clover, 
alone,  fuflices,  in  the  morning  are  carried  to  the  32 
beafts,    i2ooIb.   in  the  evening  the  like  quantity. 

Eieht 


J54         CATTLE     PASTURED    AND     SOILED  I 

Eight  acres,  cut  four  times*  in  the  feafon  of  foil- 
ing, is  about  once  in  every  fix  weeks :  or  near  30 
perches  are  cut  in  a  day  :  that  is  15  in  the  morning, 
15  in  the  evening  ;  or  a  fquare  of  near  four  perches 
each  time.  Would  it  require  fix  hours  to  cut,  cart 
in  and  give  to  the  beads  a  fquare  of  eight  perches 
of  grafs,  befides  cleaning  the  ftalls  and  heaping  or 
depofiting  the  dung  ? 

But,  in  many  parts  of  America  are  idle  improvi- 
dent people,  mafters  of  farms,  who  fpend  their  time 
in  taverns  or  other  places  of  wafleful  amufement : 
any  where  rather  than  at  hom^.  Thefe  haunts  are 
at  the  expenle  of  their  domestic  and  true  happinefs. 
Sooner  or  later  they  bring  on  them  debts,  wants 
and  grating  claims  of  creditors.  Such  a  people  can 
never  be  brought  to  foil  cattle,  or  at  all  improve 
their  farms.  Where  is  foiid  comfort  to  be  found  if 
not  at  home?  The  meannefs,  the  felfiihnefs  and  the 
folly  of  thefe  hujhands^  fathers  or  masters^  are  con- 
fpicuous,  degrading  and  fhameful ;  who,  regardlefs 
of  'ujijcy  child  and  dependents  claiming  their  protec- 
tion, 

*  In  fome  years  this  might  be  accompli  flied.  In  odier 
rears  the  cuttings  would  be  not  more  than  thrice  ;  or  even  in 
years  of  very  fevere  droughts  might  be  not  more  than  t-jJice. 
Jn  cafes  cf  neceffity  the  horfes  and  catde  ca.n  be  tethered 
awiiile  ;  and  hay  muft  be  referved  to  fupply  fuch  deficiencies 
of  grafs.  Mr.  Boys,  (20th  Anna!)  ftakes  his  fine  team 
hcrles,  all  fummer  on  clover. 


KEPT    AND    FATTENED. 


'55 


tlon,  their  afFeflions  and  their  attentions,  and  even 
regardlefs  of  the  true  interefts  of  their  precious 
felves,  fly  from  their  own  happinefs  in  the  moment 
when  they  mount  their  horfes  and  hurry  to  the  ta- 
vern, the  race,  nine-pins,  billiards,  excefs  upon  cx- 
cefs  of  toddy,  and  the  mofl  nonfenfical  and  idle 
chat,  accompanied  with  exclamations  and  roarings, 
brutal  and  foreign  to  common  fenfe  and  manners  as 
the  mind  of  wifdom  can  conceive  of  depraved  man. 
Had  thefe  men,  fo  deficient  in  chara<^er,  been  train- 
ed but  a  few  years  among  the  orderly,  thoughtful 
good  farmers  of  fome  neighbouring  diftrifi-,  they 
would  have  learnt  valuable  leffons  for  condu£lino: 
their  farms,  themfelves  and  their  domestic  affairs, 
greatly  to  their  comfort  and  advantage,  and  to  the 
comfort  due  to  their  families  and  dependents ;  to 
Vv^hom  they  owe  more  than  they  are  accuftomed  to 
feel  for  them.  There  are  on  the  other  hand,  thofc 
who  with  induftry  aim  at  providing  for  their  fami- 
lies, but  it  is  not  with  an  honed  mind  and  fairnefs 
of  reputation.  The  llrength  of  thefe  is  in  lov/  cun- 
7iing :  If  indeed  they  wilh  to  be  perfect  in  that  de- 
tellable  of  all  qualities,  they  need  not  go  far  fropi 
home ;  unlefs  for  the  lake  of  embellifliing  the  fata- 
nical  talent  with  fome  variety.  They  might  then 
affociate  with  the  villanous  clafs  of  people  diflin- 
guilhed  for  more  of  this  bafe  quality  than  of  provi- 
dent induflry,  fairnefs  and  honefl:,  manly  candour. 

The 


156        CATTLE     PASTURED    AND    SOILED. 

The  foil  of  the  flates  fouth  of  Pennfylvania,  has 
been  impoveriflied  by  the  ftaple  articles  of  produce 
tobacco  and  maize.  Maize  being  cultivated  in  large 
fields  for  feeding  fupernumerary  negroes,  and  alfo 
for  the  market  without  ever  being  manured,  is  the 
chief  exhauder.  Tobacco  ground  in  detached  par- 
cels is  manured,  and  fo  far  is  helped  :  but  hand-hoe 
fcratchings  and  fcrapings  expofe  the  foil  to  be  hur- 
ried off  by  every  gufl  of  wind  or  rain,  and  its  nu- 
tritive contents  to  exhalation  by  the  fun  and  wind. 
Another  great  evil  attending  tobacco-making  is  the 
attentions  to  it  which  are  unceafmg  and  unrivalled, 
fo  that  the  due  culture  of  all  other  articles  of  huf- 
bandry  is  loft  in  that  of  tobacco.  Houfes  are  un- 
grudged  for  curing  tobacco,  two  to  eight  or  ten 
houfes  are  cheerfully  built  for  this  crop  ;  but  not 
one  for  live-stock ^  nor  a  -blade  of  hay  for  them, 
though  multiplied  beyond  the  prefent  means  of 
keeping  them  on  the  pretence  that  the  more  the  cat- 
tle the  more  the  dung  for  the  tobacco :  but  the  to- 
bacco planters  herein  deceive  themfelves ;  for,  their 
cattle  being  pinched  in  quantity  and  quality  of  food, 
give  a  fmall  portion  of  but  lean  dung  5  and  becom- 
ing hide-bound  and  expofcd  to  fleet  and  cold  rains, 
die  in  great  numbers,  yearly.  Yoy  renewing  the 
redundancy  all  calves  arc  reared — But  enough  of 
thcfe  gloomy  and  barbarous  practices ! 

Humanity 


OX-HOUSE.  137 

Humanity  ought,  and  felf  intereft  well  underftood, 
at  (ome  time  or  other,  will  induce  the  ere£ling  boufes 
for  cattle.  The  like  motives  ought  to  make  mea- 
dows, provide  great  quantities  of  good  food,  and  pro- 
portion the  cattle  to  the  means  of  keeping  them  fo 
as  to  have  as  many,  and  no  more  than  as  many  as 
can  be  comfortably  kept  in  good  heart.  Numbers 
ef  cattle  well  kept,  give  the  dung  requilire  for  im- 
proving and  prefcrving  the  productive  powers  of  the 
ground. 

Some  account  is  already  given  of  the  houfes  and 
method  of  keeping  cattle  in  (lalls,  by  Mr.  BakeweU 
and  farmers  in  Pennfylvania. 

The  great  difference,  befides,  in  the  American 
and  the  European  modes  of  winter  keeping  live- 
ftock,  is  in  the  Europeans  giving  with  dry  food, 
roots  or  juicy  food ;  which  the  Americans  generally 
negleft,  whereby  their  cattle  become  colilve  and 
hide-bound.  The  Englilh  give  turnips,  the  Ger- 
mans drank. 

Mr.  Toung  gives  an  account  of  an  ox-houfe,  which 
in  England  is  reckoned  very  complete.  The  owner, 
a  Mr.  Moody,  keeps  26  beafts,  each  in  a  flail  8  htt 
wide  for  large  oxen^  6  feet  for  fraaller.  How  dif- 
ferent from  Mr.  Bakeivell^s  of  the  fame  country; 
which  are  Halls  6  feet  for  i%vo  cows,  8  k^i  for  i-icq 

bulls. 


158  OX-HOUSE. 

bulls.*  Mr.  Moody's  has  at  the  head  of  each  flail, 
a  fquare  manger,  for  hay  put  in  through  a  window 
in  the  wall  oppofite  to  the  bead's  head.  The  hay- 
ftacks  are  in  a  yard  at  the  back  of  the  building  ;  fo 
that  the  feed  of  hay  is  taken  from  the  flack,  and  at 
one  ftep  put  into  the  manger.  On  one  fide  the  hay 
is  a  fmall  flone  ciflern,  as  a  trough  to  eat  oil-cake 
out  of.  On  the  other  fide  is  another  flone  ciflern 
for  water  ;  which  is  thus  fupplied  :  outfide  the  houfe 
is  a  pump  which  raifes  the  water  into  a  ciflern,  ex- 
actly on  a  level  with  all  thofe  that  receive  water  for 
the  oxen.  A  pipe  of  lead  leads  from  this  pump 
ciflern  to  all  the  others  in  the  houfe ;  fo  that  it  may 
be  feen  by  the  height  of  water  in  the  pump  ciflern, 
how  high  it  is  in  all  the  refl.  The  houfe  is  fhut 
quite  up.  In  tlje  doors  are  holes  to  let  in  air :  but 
flidins:  fhutters  exclude  it  at  pleafure.  At  one  end 
of  the  houfe  is  a  Imall  room  for  oil-cakes,  and  a 
ftove  with  a  broad  iron  top,  for  laying  on  the  cakes 
to  be  heated  a  little  for  breaking.  A  block  flands 
by  it,  on  which  the  cakes  are  broken. 

Mr.  Moody  is  lingular  in  the  practice  of  fvveating 
cattle,  for  promoting  their  fattening.  He  fays,  the 
hotter  they  are  kept  the  better  they  will  fatten. 

He 

*  Mr.  Bakewell  kept  beafts  :  Mr.  MooJy  fattened  them. 
Does  this  occafion  the  difference  ;  or  is  it  not  an  error,  ia 
applying  8  and  5  feet  ftalls  lo Jingle  beafts  I 


CATTLE     KEPT,     Efff.  1 59 

He  fliuts  them  up,  and  for  forae  time  lets  in  no  air 
through  the  holes  of  the  doors.  The  breath  of  fo 
many  and  the  heat  of  their  bodies,  foon  bring  them 
to  fvveat  prodigioufly  ;  and  when  this  is  at  its  height, 
they  fatten  beft  and  quickefl.  After  fweating  two 
weeks,  the  hair  all  comes  off  and  a  frefli  coat  comes, 
like  that  in  the  fpring :  after  which  they  fweat  no 
more.  He  adds,  thofe  beads  which  do  not  fweat 
at  all  fcarcely  ever  fatten  well.  His  beafls  are  a 
large  fort,  from  So  to  130  ftone.*  He  gives  to 
thofe  of  100  Hone,  two  oil-cakes  a  day  for  two 
months :  then  three,  till  fat :  alfo  2olb.  of  hay  each 
a  day;  of  which  they  eat  only  the  prime  part. 
Lean  beafls  are  kept  on  their  offal  hay.  Such  a 
beafl  in  winter  fattening  eats  above  30  dollars 
worth  ;  but  he  improves  in  value  more  than  to  that 
amount. 

There  is  a  great  difference  between  keeping  and 
fattening.  Mr.  Bal<:ewell  keeps  :  Mr.  Moody  fat- 
tens :  and  there  is  much  difference  in  the  expenfe  of 
fummer  fattening  on  grafs,  and  fattening  on  winter 
food. 

In  America,  we  keep  cattle  through  the  winters, 
on  ftraw,  maize  fodder,  and  hulks,  giving  them  wa- 
ter; 

"*  1 1 00  to  1 800  ft) ;  or  280  to  450ft)  a  quarter:  or  is  it 
meant  a  done  of  lefs  weight  by  the  cuflom  of  tlie  place  : 
Such  deviations  fupported  by  local  cuftqms  are  perplexing. 


i6o  CATTLE     KEPT,      '^C. 

ter ;  and  fatten  on  hay,  and  cut  flraw  with  mdl ; 
or  as  in  Maryland,  with  maize  fodder  and  broken 
ears  of  maize,  in  the  ivinter :  on  grafs  in  fummer. 
It  is  requilite  that  they  have  fait  very  frequently ; 
efpecially  when  tied  up  :  and  it  is  a  good  way  when 
made  up  with  fine  clay  into  a  firm  mafs,  to  be  lick- 
ed at  pleafure,  as  in  the  wild  flate  beafls  lick  earth, 
in  fpots,  for  obtaining  fait. 

Oil  cake  is  faid  to  be  a  great  fattener,  and  on 
experiment  has  been  proved  to  give  doubly  rich 
dung;  but  becoming  dear,  linfeed  jelly  is  taking 
place  of  it  in  England.  This  jelly  is  a  valuable  dif- 
covery  j  and  ought  to  be  apphed  in  America,  for 
fattening  cattle,  if  not  alfo  fheep.*  Hay,  meal, 
and  linfeed  jelly  with  drank,  muft  be  excellent  food 
in  ftall-fattening.  Linfeed  jelly  is  thus  made :  7  of 
water  to  i  of  fiaxfeed  deeped  in  a  part  of  the  water 
48  hours :  then  add  the  remaining  water  cold,  and 
boil  gently  1  hours,  ftirring  conilantly  to  prevent 
burning.  It  is  cooled  in  tubs,  and  given  mixed 
with  any  meal,  bran  and  cut  chaiF.  Each  bullock 
(large)  has  two  quarts  oi jelly  a  day  :  equal  to  a  lit- 
tle more  than  one  q,uart  of  feed  in  four  days.     Cattle 

fix 

*  Srfammm  Oil,  by  the  negroes  m  Carolina  called  B^mu  oil, 
is  faid  to  fatten  tsr/fs  near  the  Nile,  in  latitude  14"  rorth. 
Eit)\TOe*s  Travels.  This  plant  gives  the  ^eateft  portion  of 
oil ;  and  may  anfwer  inltead  of  Linfeed.  Ne^oes  eat  Benni 
Oil  mixed  in  their  meifes  :made  with  Indian  n:?al. 


OF    CATTLE,     SHEEP  "  AND    HOGS.  l6l 

fix  or  feven  years  old  fatten  moft  advantagcoufly  to 
the  grazier.  Their  furamer  grazing  is  commonly 
but  a  preparation  to  ftall-fattening. 

Obfervatio?ii  on  Cattle,  Sheep,  arid  Hogs* 

In  judging  of  the  preference  to  be  given  to  differ- 
ent kinds  of  cattle,  fize  is  far  from  being  of  the  firfi: 
confideration.  Their  being  a  large  kind  implies  bulk 
rather  than  charader.  It  may  be  prefumed  the  mafs 
of  meat  and  bone  contained  in  three  beeves^  gene- 
rally requires  no  more  food  than  the  fame  quantity  in 
one  beef.  But  there  is  a  rage  in  America  for  large 
horfes,  large  cattle,  large  iheep,  large  hogs ;  whe- 
ther they  are  more  or  lefs  docile,  aftive  and  produc- 
tive of  net  income,  or  are  kept  and  fattened  at  more 
or  lefs  cofl  or  not.  This  formerly  was  a  diilemper 
of  the  mind  among  farmers  in  England  j  of  which 
they  have  been  cured  by  experience  and  the  obfer- 
vations  and  communications  of  ingenious  invefliga- 
tors  on  the  nature  and  qualities  of  the  feveral  breeds 
refpcfting  ufe  and  net  projit. 

The  common  cow-kind  of  Maryland  are  valuable ; 
as  they  are  hardy,  feed  cheaply,  yield  milk  of  good 
quality  and  in  quantities  if  houfed  and  ivell  kept  ia 
winter,  are  docile,  laborious,  and  give  a  fine  grain- 
ed good  meat,  with  a  due  proportion  of  tallow. 
But  being  in  common  very  meanly  Iiepr,  they  want 

L  Hze 


1^2  CATTLE. 

lize.      When  well  fed  and  houfed,  they  are  of  a 
good  fize  for  all  ufcful  purpofes. 

Northward  of  the  Sufquehanna,  this  old  breed 
is  moilly  fupplanted  by  new  kinds,  imported  from 
Europe  and  valued  more  for  their  great  fize  and 
heavy  appearance  than  good  qualities.  They  have 
large  bones  with  a  deep  flat-Cded  but  maiTy  appear- 
ance, and  their  fore-quarters  arc  heavier  than  their 
hind  ;  in  fome  breeds  amazingly  fo  :  which  indicates 
their  keeping  and  fattening  hardly  and  collly ;  be- 
jides  that  their  meat  is  coarfe  and  they  are  difpro- 
portioned  in  their  weight  of  bone.  The  old  breed 
of  the  country  have  the  fore  and  hind  quarters 
■weighing  nearly  alike :  mine  at  Wye  had  the  hind- 
quarters a  few  pounds  heavier  than  the  fore.  What 
a  contrafi  to  this  is  the  weight  of  the  quarters  in 
beeves  foraetimes  killed  in  Philadelphia !  The  com- 
mon weights  of  my — » 

iVy e  czXllt,  from  grafs,  the  fore  quarters    .     122,  hind  124 
A  Ph'ilttd.  ox,  highly  fed  from  a  calf,  .     403  280 

The  famous  Blackwell  ox  has  been  reckoned  the 

fined  though  not  the  heaviefl  beafl  ever  killed  in 

England.     His  hind  quarters  weighed  more  than  the 

fore^  nearly  in  the  proportion  of  the  old  breed  in 

Maryland.     His  legs  were  very  fmall-boned   and 

neat. 


CATTLE.  1^3 

neat,  according  to  the  pifture  and  account  of  him 
publilhcd. — This  Blackwell,  not  Bakewell,  fine  boned 
ox  weighed  thus : 

The  two  fore-quarters  1057^ 
hind-quarters  1067 

2124 

How  very  different  from  thefe  are  the  huge  lub- 
berly beads,  once  in  falhlon  in  England  and  now 
becoming  fo  in  America !  which  are  imported  into 
ditFerent  parts  of  it.  One  of  that  chara£ler  was  kill* 
ed  in  England,  under  five  years  old  :  a  ihort -horned, 
big-boned  clumfy  bead  ;  and  weighed. 

The  two^or^-quarters  iio7tb 
/j/W-quarters    924 


2031 

A  big-boned  deer,  killed  in  Philadelphia,  weighed, 

The  two/orf -quarters  805^ 

Z'/W-quarters  560  :  and 

A  big-boned  deer  in  New-Jerfey, 

The  two^r^-quarters  7581b. 
/jind-qu3iTters  525* 

The  Maryland  old  breed  if  ^-dlfid  and  fnsliersd, 
TPOuld  be  a  good  fize  :  and  if  cautioudy  raised  with 

L  ii  other 


i64  CATTLE. 

Other  breeds,  the  mofl  ufeful  and  produElive  of  net 
income,  would  be  improved.  But  it  is  with  much 
caution  that  we  fliould  admit  other  breeds.  There 
are  better  ;  and  certainly  there  arc  much  ivorfe, 

A  Mr.  Fowler,  in  England,  with  great  care  and 
judgment,  changed  for  the  better;  in  chieflyintro- 
ducing  Mr.  Bakeweli*s  long-horned  beef  cattle : 
which  are  not  {o  remarkable  for  great  fize  or  quan- 
tity of  milk  though  very  r'tch^  as  for  their  giving 
meat  on  the  parts  which  fell  for  the  mofl  money  bj 
the  pound  y>-^;»  a  given  quantity  cffood  ;  and  for  their 
fattening  on  lefs  food,  and  that  on  the  mofl  valuable 
parts.  The  horns  of  the  few  I  have  fcen,  though 
Jong  were  very  llim :  either  hanging  downward,  or 
{landing  wide  nearly  at  right  angles  to  the  cheeks. 
Yet  the  experienced  Mr.  B.:keivell  allows  for  fuch 
cattle  but  fix  feet  width  of  ftalls  for  two  cows,  three 
feet  each ;  and  eight  feet  for  two  bulls.  More 
room  he  faid  would  admit  of  their  turning  and  dirty- 
ing each  other.  The  young  cows,  lean,  appeared  to 
mc  like  racers  compared  with  the  heavy  big-boned 
cattle  coming  into  falhion  in  America. 

There  may  be  breeds  preferable  for  American 
farms  to  Mr.  BakewelPs  valuable  cattle  ;  efpccially 
the  Sujfex  old  red,  Suffolk  polled,  and  the  Hereford 
breeds  :  but  /"/  r  Jimins  to  be  afcertained  by  experience, 
Mr.  Toung,  fpcalung  of  Suffolk  cows,  fays  the  quan- 
tity 


CATTLE.  165 

ti'ty  o^milk  they  give  exceeds  that  oF  any  other  breed 
he  has  met  with,  and  there  Is  hardly  a  dairy  of  any 
confideration  in  the  county  of  Suffolk  which  has  not 
cows  giving  early  in  June,  eight  gallons  of  milk  a 
day  ;  and  fix  arc  common  among  many  for  a  large 
part  of  the  feafon  ;  and  five  gallons  a  day  medium  in 
a  whole  dairy  for  two  or  three  months.  It  is  alfo 
[  obfcrved  by  him,  that  this  breed  is  much  inclined 
lo  fatten,  and  the  milk  excels  in  richnefs  as  well  as 
being  abundant.*  Yet  after  Mr.  Young  had  faid 
this,  and  had  kept  of  the  Suffolk  breed,  and  was 
well  acquainted  with  Mr.  Bakewell  and  his  breed  of 
cattle  many  years,  he  purchafed  for  his  own  farm,  a 
bull  and  two  cows  of  the  Sujfea  old  breed,  having  had 
a  great  deal  of  riding  in  fearch  for  the  pureft  of  that 
breed ;  they  being  eflecmed  excellent  for  milk^  for 
beef,  and  for  oxen.  He  gave  about  fifty  guineas  for 
the  bull  and  two  heifers,  which  were  the  beft  he 

could 

•  Lord  Egremont  has  a  Chinefe  cow ;  which  gives  milk  fm- 
gularly  rick.  One  pint  of  it,  on  experiment,  yielded  as  much 
butter  (4  ounces)  as /even  pints  of  the  milk  of  a  Sujfcx  co'w  ;  both 
vrere  churned  directly  from  the  cows ;  \rithout  being  fet  for 
cream.  This  Chinefe  cow  is  defcribed  as  being  fmaller  than 
any  Aldemey  cow  ;  feems  very  fat ;  and  as  clean  in  the  chap 
as  a  deer.  This  fa<ft  confirms  other  obfervations  on  the  quality 
ot  the  milk  of  different  breeds  of  cows.  It  is  the  qu  dity,  not 
the  quantity  of  milk,  that  ought  moftly  to  be  attended  to. 
Suffolk  cow's  milk  is  not  fo  rich  as  that  of  Sujfex  cows.  2c  Ai». 
281. 


lS6  CA.TTLE. 

could  procure  in  Suffex.     The  Suffolk  pjoUed  cattle 
coil  rather  lefs  money. 

Befides  the  Suffolk  polled  and  the  Suffex  breeds, 
there  is  a  Hereford  breed,  preferred  by  Mr.  Marfhal 
and  Mr.  Canipbell,  as  the  bed  in  England  for  oxen y 
for  dairy,  and  for  fattening,  •  The  European  cattle 
perhaps  befl  worth  attention  in  America,  are  the 
Bakeweli  long  horned,  the  Suffolk  polled,  the  SuJJex 
and  the  Hereford-,  alfo  the  fmaller  Englifh  breed 
mentioned  below,  having  fmall  line  bones  and  being 
well  formed,  with  generally  a  brindle  or  red  colour 
and  white  along  the  back  and  acrofs  the  thighs  and 
fore  l^gs  or  the  (boulders ;  and  likewife  the  white 
breed  having  a  yellow  Jkin  and  brown  ears,  alfo  men- 
tioned below. 

There  is  on  the  other  hand,  a  large,  bony,  coarfs 
jneat  breed  of  cows,  which  give  a  deal  of  milk  and- 
ivater,  rather  than  milk,  and  feed  expenfively.  It 
has  had  its  run  in  England  againfl  other  breeds,  till 
its  bad  qualities  were  noticed.  Some  of  this  breed 
are  imported  into  America,  and  eagerly  fought  after: 
for  they  have  ulk  and  certain  faftiionable  fancied 
charms  aboui:  the  hea  and  horns,  Mr.  Maurice,  a 
farmer  in  England,  as  Mr.  Young  informs  us,  chang- 
cd  his  bct'er  Shropfhire  breed,  for  the  then  fafhion- 
able  Holdernefs  and  Dutch  fliort- horned  cattle,  efpe- 
cially  becaufe  they  gave  a  great  deal  of  milk  j  but  he 

foon 


CATTLE.  l6j 

foon  found  they  were  co^Iy  in  feeding ;  that  they 
were  tender  in  keeping,  and  gave  the  poorest  milk. 
He  thereon  got  rid  of  them  for  other  breeds,  chiefly 
Bakeweirs. 

Thofe  fhort-homed  cattle  feed  to  vafl:  weights  j 
yet  are  not  profitable  to  the  breeder,  the  grazier,  or 
the  dairy-man.  How  poor  the  milk  !  twenty-four 
quarts  of  their  fr^^;«  yielded  i6,rt)  of  butter  ;  and 
the  fame  quantity  from  the  long-horned  gave  28 ft  of 
butter.  From  Suffolk  polled  cows,  1 8  quarts  of  their 
milk  have  given  a  quart  of  cream  ;  which  yielded 
lift*  of  butter.  "  Holdcrnefs  cows  and  their  rela- 
•*  tions,  the  Fifes,  give  the  greatefl  quantity  of  milk  5 
"  and  the  coarfeft  grained  meat.  Fine  f.cjhed  cattle 
*'  give  milk  of  a  better  quality  and  higher  richer  fla- 
*'  vour."  In  refpeft  to  food,  30  long-horned,  it  is 
faid-  will  winter  100  dollars  cheaper  than  the  fame 
number  of  fliort  horned.  Mr.  Young  informs  the 
world  of  thefc  obfcrvations  and  opinions  of  farmers 
in  England  ;  who  attend  to  and  well  know  the  qua- 
lities of  the  refpedlive  breeds  of  cattle. 

The  rage  for  lar^e  beafts  is  not  now  fo  great  in 
England  as  it  has  been,  or  as  it  is  in  America.  The 
breeds  having  flat  broad  fides,  large  deep  fore-quar- 
ters, large  bones  and  legs,  and  that  with  their  deep 
fore-quarters  are  lank  on  the  hinder  parts,  have  in- 
jured our  better  common  breed  in  fonae  of  their  befl 

qualities. 


l6t  CATTLE. 

qualities.  Our  old  breed  milk  well,  if  lioufed  and 
kept  in  good  plight  during  winter :  or,  in  other  words, 
if  as  ludl  kept  and  attended  to  as  the  favourite  new 
comers.  The  Maryland  old  breed  of  fleers  will  fat- 
ten in  common  600  to  800.  I  have  raifed  and  kill- 
ed of  them  fed  to  upwards  of  90c  ft,  at  only  five 
years  old. 

There  is  a  fancy  in  country  people  by  which  they 
ofren  eflimate  the  qualities  of  cattle  from  their  co- 
Jours  :  but  this  is  a  falfe  ground  on  which  to  judge 
of  them.  Different  diflri^ls  of  people  preferring 
fome  one  and  fome  another  colour.  The  red,  the 
black,  brindle,  brown,  dun,  pied,  are  favourite  co- 
lours with  different  people.  A'  cow  is  faid  to  be 
good  becaufe  of  the  quantity  of  milk  £he  gives :  but, 
this  cow  and  her  offspring  may  be  bad  on  all  other 
accounts,  in  comparifon  with  other  cattle.  She  may 
br  tender,  hard  to  keep,  and  give  coarfe  fiabby  meat 
and  poor  milk.  It  is  indeed  obferved  of  white  cat- 
tle that  fuch  as  have  a  white  Jhin  are  tender  in  keep- 
in?  :  but  there  is  a  ilrikin^  difference  between  white 
cattle  having  a  w  ite  Jkin,  and  fuch  as  have  a  yel- 
lowijhjkin.  They  are  different  breeds,  of  different 
natures  and  qualities. 

On  my  farm  at  Wye,  wereufually  wintered  170 
bead  of  cow-kind,  young  and  old  ;  of  the  old  breed 
of  the  country,  and  Qf  various  colours,  though  molily 

red. 


red,  brown,  and  brindle.  About  the  y^ar  1774, 1 
began  to  mix  this  breed  with  a  rather  fmall  but  well- 
formed,  fmalUboned  Englifli  breed.  The  cattle  from 
this  mixture  were  generally  brindle  or  red  with  a 
dafh  of  white  acrofs  the  (houlders  or  fore-legs,  the 
thighs,  and  along  the  back.  The  flock  was  thus  im- 
proved in  gentlcnefs  and  in  milk.  About  the  year 
1785,  thefe  cows  firH:  had  my  fine  bull,  Horace,  who 
was  out  of  a  country  cow  by  a  bull  imported  by  the 
late  Mr.  Calvert,  from  Mr.  Wildman  a  dealer  in 
England.  My  cattle  were  further  improved  from 
this  mixture,  in  gentlenefs,  in  draughty  meat,  milky  and 
Jize.  As  oxen  they  were  active  and  powerful,  and 
very  docile.  Horace  and  his  fire  had  white  hair  on 
a  yellowij}}  Jhiriy  and  their  ears  and  nofes  were  a  red- 
difh  brown.  Such  Lord  An/on  found  the  cattle 
were  upon  Tinian;  and  he  efpecially  commends  their 
gentlenefs  and  the  good  quality  of  their  meat.  Did 
Lord  Anfon  or  others  import  the  breed  from  Tinian  ? 

Farmers  are  impofed  on  by  butchers ;  who  by 
praifes  prevail  on  them  to  prefer  the  breeds  having 
large  bones,  and  that  are  deep  fore-quartered  heavy 
looking  beads  ;  whofe  fore  quarters  outweigh  theh- 
hind  quarters,  with  the  aid  of  their  mafTy  fcimitar- 
like  ribs.  Why  do  butchers  recommend  this  beafl 
of  bone  ?  Or  farmers  receive  their  fubtle  recommen- 
dation ?  Is  it  becaufe  their  appearance  is  agreeable 
to  the  farmer's  pafiion  for  what  is  big  ?  The  choicef! 

meat 


tyo  CATTLE, 

meat  is  on  beads  having  fmall  bones.  The  Bake* 
well  cattle  and  (heep  have  not  the  heavy  appearances 
of  the  clumfy,  big-boned,  and  flat-Cded  bcafls  pre- 
ferred by  retailers  of  meat :  but  they  arc  greatly  fu- 
pcrior  in  their  meat,  and  in  cheap  feeding. 

Breeders  of  cattle  will  atteini  to  the  difference  in 
ex^enfe  of  food  requifite  for  the  big-boned,  and 
the  fmall-boned  lighter  formed  cattle  :  and  the  cor^ 
fumer  of  meat  may  compare  the  weight  of  bone  and 
meat  in  a  quarter  of  the  fmall-boned  with  one  of  the 
large  boned  breed.  The  greater  the  proportion  of 
bone,  the  oftener  he  recurs  to  the  butcher.  Iq  gene- 
ral, fmall-boned  animals,  carry  it  even  to  man,  fat- 
ten more  readily  and  with  \^i^  food  than  the  large 
boned. 

The  firfl  great  error  in  breeders  of  live-flock,  in 
America,  is  in  their  paffion  for  the  largest  kiruis* 
The  largest  and  the  fmallest  breeds  are  the  very 
worft  ;  and  ought  to  be  avoided  in  cattle,  and  ge- 
nerally in  all  animals.  The  huge  big-boned  dray- 
horfe  is  unprofitable.  The  fcimitar-ribbed,  fiat-Cded 
lubberly  big-legged  cattle,  are  expenfjve  maffes  of  un- 
important bone,  with  an  inferior  portion  of  coarfe 
meat  dearly  obtained  in  the  feeding, 

*'  No  quantity  or  quality  of  food  given  infummer, 
**  will  procure  milk  in  good  quantities,  from  cows 

«  that 


CATTUE.  «J7l 

<«  that  have  been  poor  in  the  pre  ceding 'winter ;"  whe» 
iher  their  mean  plight  be  owing  to  a  fcanty  allow- 
ance or  poor  quality  in  the  food,  cr  to  a  want  of  {hel« 
ler.  Dry  food  from  draw,  or  from  hulks  and  fodder 
of  Indian  corn,  cannot  carry  catrlc  through  winter 
h\fullflt:fb,  unlefs  there  be  added  iomc  juicy  cr  nicist 
food,  to  prevent  their  becoming  coRive  and  hide- 
bound. Turnips  and  the  common  fiefliy  pompions 
inay  be  given  in  the  fore  part  of  winter ;  the  red  thin 
ifiefhed  more  hardy  pompion,  potatoc,  fcarcity  root« 
ruta-baga  turnips,  and  other  hardy  roots  or  cabbages 
afterwards  ;  and  drank  with  any  dry  good  food,  till 
there  is  a/«//  bite  of  grafs  in  May.  With  common 
care  I  have  kept  the  lefs  fie(hy  pompion  having  a 
deep  orange-coloured  rind,  till  the  25th  of  March  in 
a  cellar  having  a  fraall  vent  for  vapour  at  the  South 
iront.  Cows  ought  to  have./'<7)'  from  a  month  be- 
fore calving.  The  vines  of  field  peas  and  beans  ar^: 
excellent  for  cows  and  for  ilieep. 

Thaty^//  is  advantageous  to  all  live-flock  is  well 
known  :  but  the  giving  it  to  them  is  not  .Efficiently 
attended  to  and  valued.  For  health  it  is  admirable 
and  even  necefiary.  It  is  faid,  it  enables  the  farmer 
to  Incrcafe  his  flock,  as  ic  nugjnents  the  nourijhvficnt 
of  the  food  eaten  in  proportion  to  the  quantity  or 
fait  eaten  ;  and  that  there  can  be  no  excefs  in  the 
fait  eaten,  give  as  freely  as  you  pleafe.  It  alfo  is 
faid  that  fult  greatly  improves  wool  in  quality  as  well 


lyi  SHEEP7 

as  quantity.  It  ought  to  be  without  flint  always 
before  the  animals.  Mixing  it  with  water  and  pure 
fine  clay  in  a  firm  mafs,  for  them  to  lick  it,  as  in  their 
wild  flate,  rather  than  to  give  the  fait  alone.  In 
twenty  years  refidence  on  my  farm  at  Wye,  a  fait 
ijuater  river,  and  always  having  there  upwards  of  50 
horfekind,  I  know  of  no  inflance  of  their  having 
botts.  Near  60  years  ago  a  noted  country  horfe 
doctor  told  me  that  once  or  twice  a  week  giving  fait 
to  horfes,  efFe<rtually  fecures  them  againft  botts ; 
which  I  have  ever  fmce  well  obferved,  and  believe  it 
to  be  perfectly  jufl:.* 

"6  H  E  E  P. 

Mr.  BakeweWs  fuperior  difcernment  and  attenti- 
ons, have  produced  a  new  breed  of  (heep  ;  which 
is  fpreading  over  England,  and  is  diftinguifhed  by 
the  name  of  Dijhley  {heep.  They  are  defcribed  as 
having  fine  lively  eyes,  clean  heads,  ftraight,  broad 

fiat 

*  Salt  feems  to  be  necefTary  to  all  animals.  In  1775,  I 
made  experimen:  s  for  producing  ritre  and  common  fait.  A 
tobacco  hcufe  yielded  che  former,  and  Wye  river  the  latter. 
From  the  firft  trial  of  the  river  water  was  produced  a  pint  of 
fine  grained  fait.  From  a  rapid  boiling  the  fait  was  too  fine 
to  be  ftrong.  It  was  fpread  in  a  difh,  and  placed  on  the 
ground  in  a  yard  to  be  dried  and  hardened  ;  and  was  fome 
days  espofed  to  fun  and  wind.  Numbers  of  fmall  ants  pro- 
ceeding in  lines,  like  Indian  files,  bore  off  giains,  to  them  huge 
maffes  of  iklt,  to  their  (lores. 


SHEEP. 


»73 


flat  backs,  round  bodies,  very  fine  fmall  bones, 
thin  pelts,  with  a  difpofition  to  he  fat  at  an  early 
age.  They  become  peculiarly  fat,  with  a  very  fine 
grained  and  well  flavoured  meat,  above  all  other 
large  long  woolled  flieep.  There  are  much  larger 
flicep  in  England.  The  weight  of  the  Difliley  car- 
cafs  in  general  is,  tu;es  three  or  four  years  old, 
from  1 8  to  261b  a  quarter;  wethers,  two  years 
old,  20  to  3o.'b.  The  wool  on  a  medium  8ft  a 
fleece :  the  length  from  fix  to  fourteen  inches. 
There  have  been  muttons  of  other  breeds  in  En- 
gland, which  weighed  above  60ft  a  quarter.  But 
large  fize  was  no  obje£l  with  Mr.  Bakewell. 

The  wethers  of  the  Diihley  breed  are  killed  when 
iivo  years  old ;  becaufe  they  then  yield  the  moil: 
profit ;  and  if  kept  longer  they  become  too  fat  for 
genteel  tables.  One  killed  when  three  years  old, 
meafured  feven  and  an  eighth  inches  of  folid  fat  on 
the  ribs,  and  his  back  from  one  end  to  the  other, 
was  like  the  fatteft  bacon.  At  two  years  old,  they 
commonly  cut  four  inches  thick  on  the  ribs,  and 
two  to  three  inches  all  down  the  back.  Ewes  fat- 
tened from  July  to  Chriftmas  give  1 8  to  24tb  of 
tallow.  Country  houfe-wives  cut  off  redundant  fat, 
and  make  fuet  dumplings  or  pafte  of  it :  and  foms 
cure  the  fides  as  flitches  of  bacon.  But,  the  great 
object,  to  Mr.  Bakewell,  of  producing  this  very 
extraordinary   breed   of  ihcep,    was   the  fupcrior. 

quantity 


174  SHEEP. 

juaniity  and  quality  of  the  mutton  obtained  at  the 
least  expenfe  cffood  and  walle  of  time ! 

Mr.  Cully,  a  noted  breeder,  fays  the  mode  of 
management  of  this  breed  is  thus :  "  The  e'wes  lamb 
in  March,  and  then  a  few  turnips  are  given  for  in- 
crealing  their  raiik.*  The  laft  of  June  or  firfl  of 
July  the  lambs  are  iveaned  and  fent  to  middling  paf- 
tures.  The  e"j;es  are  thereon  milked  two  or  three 
times,  for  eafiag  their  udders ;   and  fuch  as  arc  not 

to 

*I  preferred  to  have  mv  hrr.bs  crop  about  the  20th  of 
March  in  general;  allc-.vir.g  at  the  rate  of  8  or  lo  ewes  in 
a  hundred  to  give  lambs  eariv  as  is  common.  Thefe  few 
Iambs,  coming  in  'December,  January  or  Februarr,  perilhed 
at  the  rate  of  twenty-  or  thirty  in  a  hundred.  What  of  them 
farvived  had  a  ilart  of  what  dropped  brtween  the  20th  and 
the  laft  of  March  ;  but  for  want  of  green  juicj  food  to  the 
ewes,  they  were  bony  and  poor  ;  when  the  latter,  from  their 
dams  having  grafs  fcoa  zhtr  their  yeaiing,  and  when  the 
lambs  are  fo  young  as  to  req.:ire  k:'s  m'lk  at  that  time  than 
the  early  lambs,  were  always  dtriTing  and  in  good  plight, 
whilil  growing  of  the  graTs  incr^afed  with  the  growth  of  the 
late  Lmbs.  By  July  thefe  were  equal  to  the  early  lambs  ; 
and  what  is  very  important  fcarcely  any  of  the  March  Iambs 
died  ;  fo  that  in  the  one  cafe  near  icx?  lambs  were  railed ; 
in  the  other  fcarcely  80.  It  is  proper  to  keep  the  March  ewe 
lambs  from  the  ram  till  October  come  twelve  months  after 
they  are  yeaned ;  and  even  the  early  lambs  would  be  the  bet- 
ter for  it.  My  few  early  lambs  were  for  early  meat :  but  if 
among  diem  there  w  s  a  promifing  £n,£-formed  ram  or  ewe 
cr  two,  they  were  kept  ever  for  uock.     This  at  Wye-Ifland. 


SHEZP. 


175 


CO  be  continued  for  breeding,  are  put  to  clover  till 
it  fails :  then  they  get  turnips,  and  are  fold  about 
Chriftmas,  very  fat,  at  the  price  of  750  cents  to 
9  dollars.  His  llerling  money  is  reduced  to  dollars 
and  cents. 

The /^;7;^j  after  being  Tveaned  adds  Mr.  Cully  are 
put  to  turnips  in  the  beginning  of  November,  and 
continue  at  thera  till  the  middle  of  April  or  firil  of 
May,  and  then  are  put  into  good  paflure  on  fccond 
year's  clover.  The  fecond  winter  they  have  turnips 
till  the  clover  is  enough  grown,  generally  the  mid- 
dle of  April.  They  are  clipt  about  the  middle  of 
May,  and  fold  by  the  end  of  June  for  9  to  1 1  dol- 
lars. 

One  third  of  the  Difhiey  breed  of  ewes  are  reckon- 
ed to  have  two  lambs  each  :  fo  that  60  ewes  have 
8c  lambs.  They  are  put  to  the  ram  fo  as  to  have 
Iambs  at  two  years  old ;  and  are  kept  for  breeding 
until  three  or  four  years  old  ;  except  fuch  as  are  of 
particular  good  forms  or  other  valuable  properties : 
thefe  are  kept  as  long  as  they  will  breed.  Such  as 
are  defective  in  £hape,  fufpected  of  h^xngjlow-feeders^ 
or  of  having  other  unprofitable  qualities  are  never 
put  to  the  ram." 

It  is  a  rule  applicable  to  all  forts  of  live-flock,  to 
breed  from  (Iraight  backed,  round  bodied,  clean, 

fmall 


176  SHEEP. 

fmall  boned,  healthy  creatures ;  carefully  avoiding 
fuch  as  have  roach  backs  and  gummy  hc:avy  legs 
with  an  abundance  of  external  oiFal  and  lubberly 
mafles  of  coarfe — any  thing. 

Fifty  or  fixty  years  ago  the  flieep  in  Maryland 
were  nearly  all  of  one  breed  ;  of  which  I  fliould  be 
at  lofs  to  find  one  at  this  time.  They  were  light 
made,  and  clean  boned  ;  giving  at  four  or  five  years 
old  the  belt  flavoured  nvutton,  dark,  rich  and  juicy. 
The  wool  was  in  but  moderate  quantities,  yet  of 
good  quality.  They  were  called  rat-tail  flieep, 
from  the  tail  being  fmall  and  round. 

The  only  fhecp  of  Mr.  Bakewcirs  breed  being  in 
America,  that  I  have  heard  of,  are  what  the  Rev. 
Mr.  Toofy,  an  improving  farmer  from  England, 
brought  to  Quebec.  Mr.  Toofy  lately  died  there. 
A  country  gentleman  in  Maryland,  who  had  a  num- 
ber of  farms,  was  offered  in  a  letter  from  England, 
which  I  tead,  what  he  might  want  of  Mr.  Bake- 
well's  Difliley  (lieep,  to  be  fent  to  him  by  the  let- 
ter-writer. But  alas !  the  gentleman  declined  all 
thought  of  having  them  ;  and  even  faid  he  fliould 
not  anfwer  the  letter.  I  therefore  wrote  to  the  per- 
fon  in  England.  But  the  fliip  carrying  my  letter 
fprang  a  leak  and  put  b  ick.  That  I  never  receiv- 
ed an  anfwer  was,  probably,  owing  to  the  letter 

mifcarrying  5 


SHEEP.  177 

mlfcarrying ;  from  the  Englifli  flirmer  who  was  to 
deliver  it  not  having  renewed  his  paflage. 

Sheep,  on  a  Farm  bordering  on  a  Salt -water  River 
in  Maryland. 

I  ufually  (beared  about  13c  flieep,  moftly  ewes: 
they  padured  through  the  fummer,  with  little  other 
attention  than  now  and  then  counting  them.  In 
winter  they  alfo  fliifted  for  themfelves,  in  fields  of 
fpontaneous  grafs  and  weeds,  without  being  houfed^ 
or  fed  with  aught  elfe  than  a  few  corn  blades,  if 
fnows  happened  to  be  fo  deep  as  to  deprive  them  of 
their  common  pafture  food,  and  fome  green  food 
from  tailings  of  fmall  grain  fown  ;  and  alfo  a  few — 
too  few  roots,  to  18  or  20  muttons.  The  flock 
however  had  a  large  range,  befides  the  two  fields  of 
rubbifli  grafs  and  weeds,  flieltered  by  pines  at  the 
heads  of  coves.  They  found  food  amongfl:  buflies 
and  weeds  on  points  and  broken  grounds  along  the 
margin  of  a  fait  water  river. 

An  eftimate  might  be  made  of  a  fiock  of  fliecp 
fuppofed  to  be  improved  v/hen  in  numbers  affording 
a  fliepherd  conftantly  to  attend  them,  feed  them, 
and  ufe  the  bed  m.eans  to  preferve  them  in  fafety 
and  good  plight.  But  the  flatement  below  is  of 
100  Iheep  as  they  were  kept  by  me,  v/ith  too  little 
care.* 

M  Kllimates 

*  The  Flock,  about  icoj  was  increaL-J  to  130. 


Xy9  SHEEP. 

Eftimates  vary  greatly.  Scarcely  two  men  are 
found  to  agree  in  the  articles  of  charge  and  dif- 
charge ;  and  the  attentions  and  the  neglefts  of 
fiieep,  v/ith  the  modes  of  keeping  them  are  vari- 
ous :  which  may  apologize  for  the  prefent  cftimate 
being  fo  diiferent  from  others.  No  charge  is  made 
of  intereft :  it  is  but  ideal  when  not  really  paid, 
and  when  inflead  of  paying  intereft,  I  aftually  re- 
ceive from  the  fheep,  as  fo  many  bonds  carrying  in- 
terefl:,  an  annual  income  of  above  fix  times  {ix  per 
cent,  on  their  value,  with  rent  and  all  expenfes. 
No  charge  is  made  for  common  cafualties ;  becaufe 
a  flock  fyftematically  managed,  is  not  thereby  lef- 
fened  or  reduced  below  the  defigned  number  whilft 
new  fheep  are  continually  raifed,  at  no  perceptible 
expenfC;  and  fill  up  the  place  of  thofe  loft.  So  it 
is  of  the  fheep  fold  off:  their  place  is  filled  by  the 
{lock  lambs  kept  for  the  purpofe.  It  may  be  faid 
of  flieep  fo  attended  to,  as  is  faid  of  kings — they 
never  die.  When  inftead  of  their  being  loft  they 
are  fold  or  confumed  in  the  family,  we  receive  the 
Value ;  for  which  the  flock  is  to  have  credit  in  the 
account  kept  of  them ;  juft  as  money  received  on 
bonds.  A  lamb  cofts  fo  little  in  raifing  him.,  that 
by  the  time  he  ceafes  to  be  a  lamb  his  wool  pays 
the  coft.  A  charge  might  be  made  againft  flieep 
for  damage  in  untilling  ground ;  from  their  tread- 
ing it  and  thereby  eventually  injuring  the  future 
rrop  of  wheat,  on  an  arable  farm,  more  than  their 

dung 


SHEEP. 


179 


dung  fcattered  in  fcraps  improves  it:*  but  then, 
againll  this  diiference,  may  be  let  off  in  fomc  in- 
ftances  at  lead,  the  advantage  derived  from  their 
eating  dov\n  or  preventing  to  rife  up  into  feed  many 
dicky,  dout  weeds,  which  other  live-dock  fuder  to 
grow  up,  foul  the  padures,  and  reduce  the  foil.  I 
have  doubted  of  making  a  charge  againd  my  dicep 
for  their  padurage ;  becaufe  in  an  arable  fydem  of 
hudjandry  fome  fields  mud  neccdarily  be  in  grafs, 
fpontaneous  or  fown,  and  on  thefe  they  graze  :  but 
on  a  grazing  farm  there  is  no  rubbidi  field  following 
a  grain  crop,  fo  that  grafs  is  the  only  tenant  which 
can  pay  the  rent ;  and  it  would  be  nice  and  difficult 
to  fatisfaftorily  apportion  the  rent  between  arable 
and  grazing  fields.  If  upon  the  whole,  between 
treading  the  foil  and  dedru£lion  of  weeds,  and  the 
giving  fome  fraall  improvement  from  dung  v.hild 
paduring,  dieep  do  no  notable  damage  to  che  foil 
of  an  arable  farm,  I  fee  not  fuiScient  caufe  for 
charging  the  flock  a  full  padure  price  for  the  pick- 
ings they  get  from  fields  turned  out  from  tillage,  at 
prefent,  for  the  benefit  of  future  corn  crops  or  as 
being  necedary  in  a  common  arable  fydem.  The 
little  benefit  which  foil  receives  from  dieep  padur- 


*69 


•  Sandy  foil,  not  beir^  the  coTnir.on  or  general  fell  of  the 
country,  is  not  here  under  confideration.  The  foils,  in  ge- 
neral, are  loams  and  clays.  The  loam  is  of  two  kinds  :  that 
%vhich  partakes  moHly  of  fand,  called  fandy-loam  ;  3A\i  Uiat. 
u-hich  partak^N  moftly  of  clay,  calhd  clay  ioaro- 


l8o  SHEEP. 

ing,  where  there  is  not  any  fummer  folding,  may  be 
about  balanced  by  damage  in  deadening  the  foil 
(other  than  fandy  foil)  with  their  feet,  as  it  feems 
to  me :  but  I  conclude  on  charging  20  dollars  for 
their  paflurage. 

An  eflimate  of  the  income  and  cxpenfes  of  100 
flieep,  as  kept  at  Wye  in  Maryland ; 

Cents. 
Corn  blades,  occaflonally,  800 

Winter  green  food  and  roots  to  1 8  or 

20  muttons  1000 

Some  flight  attendance  400 

Paflurage  2000 

Taxes,  wafiiing,  (hearing  800 

5000 


2700 


Wool  338!b,  at  25  cents  8450 

Lambs  40  out  of  80,  fold  at  120C.       4800 
Muttons,   20  wethers  at  240  C.  0  ^ 

15    ewes  at    180    C.  5 
Manure  in   pafturing,    and   treading 

the  foil,  oppofed.  ^595^ 

Annual  Income       159  50 
Annual  Expenfe       50  00 


Annual  Profit     Dls.  109-50 


This 


*  Diftempers  amongft  my  flieep  were  fo  uncommon  and 
trifling  that  I  recolleft  no  inftances  of  them.  Accidents 
•?vere  very  few ;  and  I  counted  upon  all  being  in  health  that 
iarvived  their  firft  fummer. 


SHEEP,  I^t 

This  is  a  profit  of  109  cents  and  5  mills  or  1095 
milJs  on  each  flieep ;  which  is  more  than  lands  dit 
tant  from  fuch  a  river  can  give,  with  no  better 
management.  In  England,  the  Duke  of  Grafton's 
accurate  account  of  feven  years  ilieep  builnefs,  gave 
an  average  of  but  633  mills  net  profit  on  each  iheep. 
His  expenfes  were  on  keeping  very  fmall  fheep, 
which  gave  but  about  i|lb.  of  wool  each,  and  were 
for  grafs,  rent,  county-poor  and  parifli-rates,  rye, 
rye  paflurage,  turnips,  hay,  barley,  wailiing,  ihear- 
ing,  carriage  of  wool,  tithe,  and  interefl.  The  633 
mills  amount  to  25  per  cent  net  profit,  on  his  capi- 
tal. Others  in  England  reckon  they  gain  110  to 
400  cents  a  head,  on  their  flieep.  They  fpeak  of 
flerling  money  ;  which  is  here  reduced  at  the  rate 
of  100  cents  for  43.  6d.  fl:erling ;  and  ico  cents  are 
a  dollar,   10  mills  one  cent. 

As  far  as  dung  is  received  by  foil  it  ought  to  be 
allowed  for  ;  and  this  is  meant  of  dung  applied  from 
fiock  kept  lip  or  folded:  but  how  far  it  is  to  be 
valued  when  flowly  dropt  about  in  pasturing,  is  a 
queftion.  Beafls  conflantly  ramming  the  foil  into  a 
clofe  compaft  ftate,  untill  it  m.ore  than  is  commonly 
apprehended.  That  the  foot  of  the  bead  does  more 
damage  to  '•juheat  foil  than  his  dung  fo  difperfed  and 
expofed  to  exhalation  and  wafie  does  good,  is  pro- 
bable from  feveral  inftances  related  of  clover  fields 
having  been  divided,  and  one  half  paflured  on  dur- 


1 5^2  SHEE?. 

ing  the  rnmmer,  the  other  mowed  twice,  and  both 
fowed  at  the  fame  time  with  wheat  on  one  plowing, 
■when  the  mown  gave  confiderably  the  heft  crops  of 
wheat.  Let  it  be  fuppofed  that  a  lay  of  grafs  has 
teen  left  unpastured  for  three  years ;  another  like 
neld  at  the  fame  tim.e  is  pallured  clofe  as  is  ufual, 
during  the  fame  three  years :  now  let  the  farmer 
walk  in  chefc,  and  obferve  how  mellow,  light,  and 
lively  the  one  is ;  how  hard  and  dead  the  other. 
Which  of  them  would  he  prefer'  for  giving  him  a 
crop  ?  If  the  former,  it  may  then  be  fufpe61ed  that 
pafluring  but  very  little,  if  at  all,  improves  the  foil. 
When  however  paflure  ground  has  been  of  many 
years  flandiog,  efpecially  if  clothed  with  grafs  for 
fhielding  the  foil  from  the  midfummer  fun,  it  may 
have  gained  forae  little  improvement  from  the  at- 
mofphere  and  the  fcraps  of  dung  together,  that  will 
be  equal  to,  if  not  greater  than  the  injury  from 
treading  the  ground.  After  two  or  three  years, 
the  fettling  and  hardening  of  the  ground,  probably, 
will  not  much  further  be  increafed. 

Amongft  the  attentions  to  fheep,  it  is  advifable  to 
fuffcr  a  fevi^  ewes  to  run  with  a  ram,  at  large,  for 
giving  farly  lambs  ;  and  that  the  reft  of  the  ewes  be 
kept  from  the  rams  till  the  middle  of  Oftobcr,  and 
then  be  allowed  a  ram  to  20  or  at  m.oft  25.  ITiei* 
Jambs  wi!l  come  from  ;hc  middle  to  the  end  of  March. 
It  IS  aifo  projj^er  to  ktc^  ewe  and  ra.m  lambs  apart 

j8or 


<H££P.  183 

18  or  20  months,  from  January  or  March  till  Ofto- 
ber  come  twelve  months.  It  is  bcft  that  there  be 
not  more  than  one  ram  with  a  divifion  of  ewes  at  a 
time ;  where  they  can  be  parcelled  off  into  feparatc 
lots,  for  two  or  three  weeks. 

It  is  neccflary  to  obferve  the  ages  of  fiieep :  and 
fomc  age  ought  to  be  fixed  on  by  the  farmer,  be- 
yond which  nothing  but  great  excellence  in  them 
as  breeders  (hould  induce  him  to  keep  them.     At 
(hearing  time  the  mouth  of  every  fticep  and  lamb  is 
to  be  infpe(5led ;  and  the  Iambs  having  blackifli  gums 
or  that  are  not  ftraight,  well  made  and  promifmg, 
arc  marked  for  fale;  as  alfo  are  the  aged  rams, 
€wes  and  weathers.     Whatever  is  the  af^e  fixed  on, 
for  clearing  the  flock  of  old  (heep,  as  many  Iambs, 
the  best,  are  to  be  turned  out  for  breeders,  and  for 
muttons,  proportioned,  as  there  are  meant  to  be 
aged  fliecp  difpofed  of;  and  a  few  more  for  fupply- 
ing  lofles  whilft  they  are  growing  up.     The  idea  of 
four  or  five  years  old,  was  long  retained  from  the 
pra^ice  of  keeping  muttons  of  the  old  rat-tail  breed 
to  thofe  ages,  for  obtaining  the  befl  flavoured  meat. 
But  I  prefer  two  or  three  years  of  age,  for  the  new 
breeds  in  America. 

The  farmer  will  firft  fix  on  the  number  of  grown 
Ihecp  to  be  kept  by  him  :  then  on  the  age  he  means 
to  obferve  for  difpoiing  of  them  j  for  he  is  to  have 

none 


154  SHEEP. 

-none  in  his  flock  that  are  not  in  full  'vigor.  Divid- 
ing the  number  in  the  whole  flock,  by  the  age  at 
which  he  means  to  difpofe  of  them,  dire6ls  to  the 
number  of  lambs  he  is  to  turn  out,  as  a  fupply  for 
the  fame  number  of  fheep  to  be  dilpofed  of  from 
the  old  (lock :  and  a  few  more  lambs  may  be  turn- 
ed out  with  the  flock  Iambs,  for  making  good  any 
loiTes.  If  two  years  are  fixed  on,  for  the  full  age, 
and  there  are  loo  fli-ep,  the  twos  in  a  hundred 
being  50  times,  direct  to  the  difpofing  of  50  aged 
fheep  ;  and  to  the  turning  out  50,  more  4  or  5  ;  in 
all  ^^  lambs.  But  the  ewes  are  to  be  4  years  old. 
Then  the  fours  in  60  ewes  are  15  ewes  to /ell ;  and 
the  twos  in  40  wethers  (together  100  flieep)  are 
20  wethers  to/ell.  In  all  fell  off  2)S  old  flicep  ;  and 
turn  out  ^^  more  5,  are  40  iambs  to  be  raifed. 
After  5  or  6  )  ears  of  age,  {heep  decline  in  figure 
and  wool.  Brambles  are  charged  by  common  far- 
mers with  taking  off  all  the  wool  that  flieep  appear 
to  have  lofl :  but  when  fheep  decline  in  vigour  and 
good  plight,  they  decline  in  the  quantity  of  their 
wool,  and  look  mean,  even  in  paflures  clear  of 
brambles.* 

HOGS. 

*  Mr.  Samuel  Jones,  in  an  addre's  to  the  Philadelphia 
county  focietv  of  Agr.culturo,  recommends  that  on  account 
of  chc  failure  of  whea'  ciops,  from  depredations  by  the  Hef- 
fian  fly.  Indian  corn,  rjif  and  ;  uckwheat  [why  did  he  omit 
barley,  fo  efTen-ial  to  be  r]  Cio-ald  be  tVe  only  corns  fovn ; 
and  that  clover  Ihoukl  be  increased,  for  food  to  an  increafe 


^OGS, 


1^5 


HOGS. 

In  Rhode  Ifland  a  hog  weighed  8241b.  alive; 
and  7151b.  when  it  was  cleaned  for  market.     Was 

it 


of  fheep.  He  fays  10  acres  of  clover,  with  a  fmall  help, 
will  pailure  a  hundred  iheep.  His  eftimate  of  expenfe  and 
profit  on  the  hundred  fheep,  is  thus  ftatsd : 


Gents. 
100  Sheep,  value   12000:  inter  eft 

Salt  10  bufli. 

Buckwheat  ftraw,  6  loads 

Hay-  2  loads 

Indian  corn  lOO  bufti. 

Deaths  5 

Wool  3  00  lb 
Lambs  80 
Manure 


Income 
Expenfe 


C. 

20640 
8199 


Cents. 
720 

266 

480 

2133 

4000 
600 

1 0000 
8000 
2640 


8199 


-2  06 '40 


Profit  on  100  Sheep  I24'4i. 


D.  mills. 
Each  flieep  1.244 


Of  Buckwheat  Jiraw,  Mr.  Jones  fays  :  "  it  is  found,  by  expe- 
rience, valuable  in  feeding  fheep  during  winter.  The  ftraw 
is  put  up  in  fmall  flacks,  foon  as  thrafhed,  round  a  pole  fixed 
in  the  ground  ;  fait  being  fprinkled  amongfl  it,  in  making  up 
the  flack."  This  information  agrees  with  that  of  an  atten- 
tive tenant,  in  Maryland  :  and  yet,  in  general,  but  little  ac- 
count is  made  of  the  flraw  of  buckwheat ;  and  till  within  a 
few  years,  it  was  but  feldom  faved.  It  Indeed  feems  to  be 
but  lately  that  the  grain  has  had  its  value  and  advantnges 


i85  HOGS. 

it  fattened  with  a  lefs  quantity  of  food  than  would 
fatten  four  hogs  of  i8olb.  each?  Wherein  is  the 
advantage  of  having  fuch  a  huge  mafs  of  coarfe  meat 
in  ene  more  than  in  three  or  four  hogs  of  a  better 
meat  ?  The  Chinefc  hog  mixed  with  the  American 
old  breed  of  white  hogs  having  ftiff,  erc£i  ears,  as 
I  have  experienced,  gives  an  excellent  breed,  which 
is  hardy,  feeds  cheap,  and  weighs  i6o  to  upwards 
of  200.  The  meat  of  this  breed  is  fine  and  clofe, 
curing  well  and  preferred  by  thofe  who  have  raifed 
them.  Of  this  mixt  breed  I  killed  a  litter  of  thir- 
teen pigs  at  eighteen  months  old  j  and  they  weigl> 
cd  when  killed  and  cleaned,  odds  of  3700^ :  an 
extraordinary  inftance ! 

But,  it  is  faid  by  farm.crs  in  Pennfylvania,  that 
lumps  of  fat  of  the  coarfe  flabby  meat  hogs  fooneft 
cloy  labourers.     This  may  continue  to  be  an  irrefifli- 

ble 

known :  and  it  is  daily  coming  more  in  fafhion  and  efteem. 
Even  whilfl  growing  it  may  be  eaten  as  a  grafs,  by  cows. 
Its  meal  muft  be  excellent  in  drank,  and  for  working  horfes, 
mixt  witli  cut  ftraw :  for  hogs,  at  firft  dufted  on  potatoes, 
afterwards  potatoes  with  maize  meal ;  and  in  all  fwill  and 
'utajb  :  alfo  for  poultry :  but  is  never  to  be  given  to  faddle  or 
travelling  horfes  ;  nor  to  horfes  or  oxen  when  to  be  put  to 
brilk  work.  It  injures  foil  lefs  than  other  corn ;  and  is  the 
jnoft  excellent  Jbehtr  to  grafs  or  clover,  fown  at  midfummer. 
Scarcely  any  thing  equals  it  as  a  green  dreffing  manure — the 
plants  plowed  in  before  they  produce  any  feed  j  and  it  is  the 
cheapeft  plant  fo  applied. 


¥10GS,  18^ 

ble  motirc  with  fome  clafles  of  folks ;  \\lien  to 
others  it  will  be  difgufting  and  contemptible.  Yet 
if  we  can  oppofe  the  yijtb  hog  by  one  of  716, 
though  it  ihould  be  a  mafs  of  inferior  meat,  we  (hall 
have  a  fomething  to  give  us  confcqucnce — the 
bigggst  hog !  At  a  Ni(i  Prius  court,  in  Maryland,  a 
perfon  was  introduced  to  me,  whofe  horfe  had  lately 
won  a  race.  This  victory,  as  I  was  told,  recom- 
mended  him,  though  not  before  thought  of,  as  being 
qualified  to  reprefent  the  people  in  their  legiflature. 
An  eleftion  foon  followed  ;  and  the  horfe — if  you 
pleafe  his  influence  carried  the  eleftion  for  his  mafter, 
all  hollow.  So  might  7 1 6  of  even  the  coarfeft  flabby 
pork  fucceed  againfl  715  of  better  meat.  Quality 
is  too  /ittle  attended  to. 

The  19  An.  291,  fays  wean  pigs  in  nine  weeks: 
fell  fucking  pigs  at  three  or  four  weeks  old  :  wean 
in  March,  and  not  later  than  July  :  litters  average 
feven  pigs ;  of  which  live  are  raifed,  after  all  ha- 
zards :  and  that  in  four  months,  feventy  fat  hogs 
gave  !  06  loads  of  dung  ;  they  taking  that  time  to 
fatten.  In  Maryland  they  are  fattened  on  maize 
given  in  ears,  in  little  more  than  two  months,  from 
fome  time  of  0£tober,  and  kiiled  loth  to  20th  De- 
cember;  weighing  150  to  200,  after  eating  feven 
or  cisht  bulhels  of  maize  piven  them  in  the  ears : 
with  which  no  food  in  Maryland,  is  found  compara- 
ble for  giving  firir.nefs  to  their  fat.     It  is  good  ceo- 

noray 


i8$  Hoo»* 

nomy  to  pen  them  for  fattening,  the  firfl:  of  Oftober, 
eipecially  where  maft  is  not  an  obje£l.  They  thrive 
bell  in  a  miJd  feafon  ;  and  the  bacon  may  be  early 
cured,  before  thr  approach  of  fpring  and  warm  wea- 
ther. Salt  is  not  given  them  that  I  know  of;  but  I 
would  offer  it  to  them  ;  to  be  taken  or  not  at  their 
pleafurc,  and  not  force  it  on  them  mixed  among  their 
food.  Why  do  fows  fometimes  eat  their  pigs,  though 
abounding  with  food  r  Is  it  for  want  of  commonjhlt 
that  they  feek  to  find  the  condiment  in  the  animal 
juices  ? 

The  offal  of  milk  is  to  be  given  to  weaning-pigs, 
andyoifj  that  have  young  pigs  :  and  the  number  of 
young  pigs  Just  iveaned,  andyWvr  having  young  pigs 
that  can  be  rnaintained  by  the  dairy.  Ihould  regulate 
the  number  of  hogs  kept,  and  the  food  provided  ac- 
cordingly. In  other  words  there  fliould  be  fuch  a 
fuccejfimi  in  the  litters,  that  the  J^im-mi/k,  butter-milk 
and  Cheefe-whey,  may  never  be  applied  to  other  ufe 
than  feeding  fuch  young  pigs,  dnid/oius  that  have  pigs. 
Ten  cows  may  yield  of  fuch  food,  enough  for  keep- 
ing ten  pigs,  to  be  puihed  forward  into  hogs.  But, 
in  fome  months  the  food  will  be  deficient,  and  in 
other  months  faperabundant.  To  make  the  moil  of 
fuch  food,  feed  the  pigs  from  out  of  Cisterns  in  w^hich 
the  milk  is  preferved.  As  I  under/land  it,  offal-milk 
and  cheefe-whey  are  kept  cool  in  Cisterns  under 
ground  (fo  is  water  kept  for  years,  though  stagnant.) 

There 


MAIZE     AND    POTATOES,      ^C.  189 

There  the  heat  is  temperate  ;  perhaps  about  52.  and 
the  milk  that  is  excluded  from  the  external  air  is  lit- 
tle apt  to  become  putrid.  If  it  ferments,  yet  it  goes 
not  beyond  the  acidulous  (late  ;  in  which  it  may  keep 
a  long  while  ;  and  common  fwill  from  grain,  is  known 
to  be  the  bed  for  fwine,  when  it  becomes  four.  At 
any  time,  if  there  be  more  of  offal  milk  than  is  wanted 
for  the  pigs,  pour  the  overplus  into  the  cistern. 

Maize  and  Potatoes  confidered  as  Fallow  Crops  and 
Fattening  Materials. 

In  eflimating  and  comparing  different  materials  for 
feeding  live-flock,  the  value  of  the  rent  and  culture 
expended  for  procuring  them,  and  the  condition  in 
which  the  foil  is  left  by  the  culture  and  crop,  ought 
to  be  confidered. 

When  potatoes  are  cultivated  under  manurings 
and  repeated  horfehoing  or  fhimming,  and  then  are 
plowed  up  and  hoed  out,  the  high  (tate  in  which  the 
ground  is  thereby  left,  preparative  to  a  fucceeding 
crop,  pays  for  cultivating  the  potatoes.  The  ground 
is  left  in  the  befl:  condition  for  receiving  barley  and 
cltyver  feeds  in  the  fpring.  Wheat  cannot  follow  po- 
tatoes to  advantage,  in  Maryland,  becaufe  of  the 
latenefs  of  the  feafon.  But  it  feems  juft  that  the 
expenfe  of  cultivating  and  preparing  the  ground, 
(hould  be  apportioned  between  the  crops ;    becaufe 


190  MAIZE    AND    POTATOES    AS 

as  it  is  nccciTary  that  the  cultivation  {hould  he  given 
for  gaining  a  good  potatoe  crop,  it  is  equally  i'o  for 
gaining  a  good  barley  crop  ;  and  both  partake  of  it. 
Add  the  country  value  of  both  crops  together,  and 
afcertain  the  apportionment  arithmetically. 

The  cultivation  given  to  maize  alfo  leaves  the 
ground  clean  and  light  for  receiving  feed-wheat  or 
other  crop.  It  however  is  far  inferior  to  the  pre- 
paration given  in  cultivating  potatoes.  No  manure 
or  but  little  is  given  the  maize  ground ;  and  it  is 
left  in  hillocks  and  finks.  Apportionments  are  alfo 
to  be  made  of  the  expenfe  between  maize  and  wheat 
crops. 

When  maize  ground  is  manured,  it  is  befl  not  to 
fow  wheat  on  it ;  but  leaving  it  a  clean  fallow  till 
the  fpring,  then  (perhaps  after  adding  more  manure 
between  autumn  and  fpring)  fow  barley  and  clover 
feeds.  Wheat  is  to  be  fowed  upon  plowing  in  this 
clover. 

Cultivating  ten  acres  o^ poiatces  may  coft,  dollars 
36.60  ;  and  it  prepares  the  ground  for  a  crop  o^  bar- 
ley, to  follow  the  potatoes.  What  portion  oi  the 
coft  ought  to  be  charged  to  the  refpe£tive  crops  ? 
The  value  of  the  potatoe  and  the  barley  crops  is 
to  be  feverally  afcertained.  The  potatoes  produced 
by  ten  acres  are   1700  bufhels,  at  1^  cents  they 

amount 


FOOD    AND    FALLOW    CROPS*  191 

amount  to  255  dollars ;  and  the  barley,  300  bufliels, 
at  60  cents,  to  180  dollars :  together  435  dollars. 
Then, 

D.  C. 

as  435  :  36.60  : :  155  =  2 1 .50.  the  apportionment  on  the  coH 

oi  potatoes, 
as  435  ;  36.60  : :  180  =  15.10,  the  apportionment  on  larky,. 

So  on  the  culture  of  the  ^o  acres  of  viahe,  the 
produce,  750  buihels,  at  50  C.  amounts  to  375  dol- 
lars ;  and  the  wheat  fown  on  it  produces  600  buQiels, 
■  at  100  cents,  amounting  to  600  dollars:  together 
gy^  dollars.  The  coft  of  cultivating  the  50  acres 
of  maize  is  250  dollars.     Then, 

D.  C. 

as  975  :  250  : :  375  =  96.1 1  apportionment  of  coft  on  maize: 

as  975  :  250  v:  600  =  I53'89  apportionment  of  coft  on  'whsa't. 

It  is  faid,  a  hog  of  2241b  is  fattened  in  60  days 
with  24  buihels  of  potatoes  and  one  bufliel  of  meal. 
At  which  rate  a  hog  of  i6olb  would  require  17  bu(h. 
of  potatoes,  and  4^  of  a  bufliel  of  meal.  An  acre 
ought  to  yield  not  lefs  than  200  bufliels  of  potatoes ; 
fay  17c,  and  of  maize  15  bufhels.  Potatoes  are 
befl  when  boiled  or  fleamed  ;  but  the  water  in  which 
they  are  boiled,  is  noc  to  be  given  to  the  hogs  ;  it 
being  thought  unwholefome. 

One  hundred  hogs  weighing  each  1 60!*),  fattened 
with  1 7  bufticls  of  potatoes  and  near  three  pecks  of 


192  MAIZE     AND     POTATOES     AS 

meal,  each,  will  eat  altogether  1700  bufliels  of  po- 
tatoes, the  produce  of  tea  acres,  and  70  bulliels  of 
meal,  the  produce  of  4^4  acres :  together  14-^!^  acres. 
llie  100  hogs,  if  fattened  with  7ibu(hels  of  maize, 
each,  would  eat  750  buihels  of  corn  the  produce  of 
fifty  acres. 

See  then  the  difference  between  fattening  with /o- 
iatces  and  with  maize.  An  expenfe  in  rent  and  cul- 
ture is  paid  on  50  acres,  for  producing  the  requifite 
quantity  of  maize ;  when  the  rent  and  culture  for 
producing  the  potatoes  with  a  dufting  of  meal,  are 
only  on  I4j^  acres  :  and, 

i4^acresof/>(//a,'e.'/ and  »n<f^/ fatten  100  hogs  D. 

weighing  i6oootb,  value  .  .         .         960 

Kent  and  culture  3.66  an  acre,  ofT        .  .       54 

906 

5 o  a.  TOflzzf  fatten  no  more         .  .  .  .  960 

Rent  and  culture  5  doL  an  acre,  off         .       .250 

710 

The  potatoes  and  m£al  coft  54  dol. — the  maize  250 
dol.  The  difference  is  196  dollars,  or  1.96,  almofl 
1  dollai-s  per  hog.  So  that  there  is  gained  on  pota- 
ioe  feeding  196  dollars  more  than  on  maize  feeding 
100  hogs :  near  two  dollars  a  hog. 

Reckoning  on  four  millions  of  fouls,  and  ten  of 
them  to  each  farm,  gives  400,000  farms.  Each  farm 
fattening  ten  hogs  weighing  i6ooIb  at  fix  dollars  a 

hundred 


FOOD    AND    FALLOW    CROPS. 


»93 


hundredj  gains  96  dollars :  and  fattening  on  potatoes 
gaining  196  cents  a  hog,  more  than  fattening  on 
corn,  gives  an  increafed  gain  of  nearly  twenty  dollars 
to  every  farmer  who  kills  ten  fat  hogs,  more  than  if 
he  had  fattened  on  maize  :  the  400,000  farmers 
gain  784000  dol.  from  fattening  with  potatots  and 
meal,  more  than  if  fattened  with  maize  alone : 
and  the  fuperiority  among  all  the  farmers  would 
be  near  1,600,000  dollars  yearly.* 

Potato  food  requiring  but  14/-  acres  produce  for 
fattening  100  hogs  ;  when  corn  food  tc(\\\\tcs  50  acres 
for  fattening  the  fame  number,  is  to  each  farm  of  10 
hogs  1.47  acres  for  potato  ground,  or  five  acres  for 
maize  :  fo  that  every  farmer  fattening  ten  hogs  wich 
potato  food  (including  a  dufting  of  meal)  has  the  uf© 
of  3AV  acres;  and  the  nation  the  ufe of  1,412,000 
acres,  more  than  if  the  hogs  were  fattened  on  corn» 

But  make  an  eflim.ate  on  what  the  farmers  mio-hc 
gain  without  difficulty,  rather  than  on  what  is  fup- 
pofed  they  do  gain  with  inferior  attentions.  InReai 
of  1 .47  acre  in  potatoes,  double  the  quantity.  Then 
2.94  acres  at  170  give  500  bufhels  of  potatoes; 
which  at  17  to  a  hog  (with  feven-tenths  of  a  bi^M 
of  meal)  inftead  of  ten  would  fatten  twenty  ho^^s  on 
N  each 

*  Perfe£t!on  in  edlrr.ates  is  not  to  be  looked  for.  Different 
fituations  vary  tliem,  as  well  as  difference  in  experience  and 
habits  of  ihinking.     Principles  are  aimed  at. 


194  FENCES. 

each  farm.  The  fuperiority  of  potato  food,  would 
give  the  farmer  near  forty  dollars,  on  twenty  hogs, 
more  than  if  he  had  fed  with  corn  :  and  the  fupe- 
riority, among  all  the  farmers  in  the  nation,  would 
be  near  fixteen  hundred  thoufand  dollars,  yearly, 
befides  what  the  ground,  faved  as  above,  would  yield 
in  other  produce. 

FENCES. 

Whether  we  have  large  or  fmall  portions  of  rail 
timber  on  our  edates,  it  is  advifable  that  a  beginning 
be  immediately  made  towards  acquiring  permanent 
live  fences.  It  v/ithal  would  be  a  pleafmg  work, 
giving  a  kind  of  new  creation  on  the  cftates  :  and 
would  aiford  the  pleallng  refle£lion  to  future  poflef- 
fors,  that  this  is  the  ivork  of  a  provident  man,  ivha 
has  thus  henevolenthj  promoted  Jo  much  good,  and  Jet 
this  excellent  example  of  a  ivell  chofen  employment, 

A  fcarclty  of  timber  and  even  of  fire-wood,  fcn- 
libly  affecls  the  apprehenfions  of  hufbandmen  in 
Biahy  parts  of  the  country  j  and  it  increafes  rapidly.* 

We 


» 


-  ^*  The  chief  dependance  for /♦/?/,  in  America,  is  'vjood.  We 
biive  no  Turl  or  Peat ;  but  there  already  is  found  Fitcoal,  in 
lower  Virginia,  and  lower  Pennfylvania,  and  in  the  interior 
fs  generally  great  appearance  of  coal ;  which  in  time  will  be 
©itrught  to  the  coaft,  down  the  rivers  Potomack,  Sufquehanna, 
&:c.     The  coal  from  James  River  is  good,  Uiough  much  of  it 


FENCES, 


195 


Wc  may  afk  ourfelves,  how  we  are  to  inclofe  and 
divide  our  fields  when  in  a  few  years  timber  fliali  be 
much  more  exhauiled.  Inclination  to  plant  and  raife 
trees  from  feeds,  is  too  little  felt ;  and  yet  plantin';^  is 
a  very  important  meafure,  which  ought  immediately 
to  have  its  beginning,  and  then  be  always  attended  to 
in  future,  for  redoring  limber  for  all  the  purpofes  of 
agriculture.  This  bufmefs  is  avoided  by  fome  peo- 
ple, becaufe  they  cannot  live  to  fee  the  plantation 
grown  up  into  timber  :  or  if  it  might  be  expelled, 

N  2  yet 

fmall.  Tn  the  ufe  of  fmall  coal,  there  is  an  improved  fiate  of 
It,  as  praftlfed  in  Flanderi.  To  the  dufl;  of  Pitcoal  rs  added 
fmall  coal  that  is  fifted  from  amongft  ihe  dull,  pounded  and 
mixed  with  the  daft  coal.  A  tub  is  then  tilled  one  third  with 
clay  ;  ivuer  is  poured  on  this  and  well  mixed,  till  it  is  the  con- 
fiftence  of  thick  cream.  A  hole  is  made  on  the  heap  of  rW- 
Jlacjiy  and,tlie  clay  batter  is  poured  in.  All  is  then  well  airred 
with  a  rake.  Of  this  mafs  bricks  are  made  In  the  ufual  man- 
ner, or  it  is  formed  into  balls  by  the  hand.  A.fter  thefe  are 
dried  under  cover,  for  two  or  tliree  weeks,  they  are  ftacked  for 
future  confumption.  The  quantity  of  heat  produced  frorat 
tliefe  and  the  length  of  their  duration  is  fo  much  iucreafeJthat 
a  hifoel  of  the  balls  will  make  a  hotter  fire,  and  lall  longer  than 
xhe.  fame  meafure  r){  commoix  coal,  in  the  proportion  of  m/6/  to 
Jive.  Firft  make  a  fire  of  common  coal,  fo  as  to  half  fill  the 
grate  ;  then  pile  the  balls  a  little  above  the  top  bar.  A  com- 
mon grate  thus  charged  will  require  no  ftirring,  and  will  need 
no  frelh  fuel  for  ten  hours.  How  convenient,  laftinq:,  and  fafe 
would  this  be  for  ledchamhtrs ,  f.ud'us ,  koifs  and  rooms  for  hack- 
ling, dreffing,  fpinning,  and  handling  the  dangeroufly  com- 
buftible  articles  flax,  &c.  To  which  note  the  improvements 
io  expending  heat  by  the  Chinefe  and  Count  RumfcrJ. 


1^6  FENCES. 

yet  "  there  is  enough  to  lad  my  time:  let  thofc  plant 
who  come  after  me."  Others  delay  it  from  lefs 
blameable  motives ;  the  aukwardnefs  and  doubt  how 
to  begin  it,  in  what  method,  where,  &:c.  Let  them, 
however,  begin  it  any  how^  rather  than  continue  to 
hefitate  year  after  year. 

There  have  been  fpirited  endeavours  of  fome  far- 
mers in  Kent  county,  Maryland,  to  have  fences  re- 
quiring lictle  or  no  timber.  They  cut  up  turf,  laid 
it  on  edge,  and  filled  in  with  earth  fcooped  up,  fo  as 
to  form  a  bank  without  a  ditch.  They  faid,  this 
fence  is  quicker  made,  than  they  could  make  a  com- 
mon worm-fence  from  the  tree  ;  which  would  require 
felling  the  trees,  cutting  into  lengths,  mauling  into 
rails,  carting  in  from  the  woods,  and  putting  up. 
But  this  fort  of  bank  fence  was  foon  given  up.  The 
pretty  green  fides  of  the  banks  were  cut  down  by 
horfes,  cattle  and  fheep  ;  and  in  fome  inflances 
droughts  penetrated  the  thinner  m.afles  of  earth,  and 
killed  the  grafs  growing  on  one  or  both  fides :  then 
all  crumbled  away,  and  the  fence  was  foon  proftrate. 
Thefe  farmers  had  merit  in  the  attempt  to  promote 
an  improvement  in  fences.  Their  next  defign  was 
to  leffcn  confumption  of  timber  by  erefting  pods  with 
rails,  inftead  of  the  common  worm-fence.  It  may 
fave  fome  timber.  Pods  and  rails  look  well,  and  "arc 
not  yet  out  of  fafliion  ;  though  being  chiefly  "of  oak, 
the  pods  ftand  only  a  few  years,  and  the  fence  fre- 
quently 


FENCES/  197 

qucntly  wants  repairs.  Pleafed  with  the  appearance 
and  the  hope  of  faving  timber,  I  completed  a  few 
hundred  yards  of  a  pofh  and  rail  fence  ;  when  refle£l« 
ing  how  foon  it  would  require  to  be  renewed,  and 
that  timber  then  would  fcarcely  be  at  command,  the 
mind  reforted  to  the  ufage  of  the  old  counrries  in 
Europe  where  want  of  timber  mufl:  have  long  fmce 
driven  hufbandmcn  to  the  experience  of  other  modes. 
On  inquiry,  I  clearly  preferred  thc'w  hedge  and  ditch 
fence  ;   and  gave  up  polls  and  rails. 

Various  kinds  of  plants  have  been  recommended 
for  making  live  fences.  Plants  having  fmall  leaves 
are  preferred,  and  of  thefe  fuch  plants  as  have  thorns 
and  flubbed  rigid  parts  growing  clofe,  for  refilling 
the  preflure  of  beads.*  In  England  are  fences 
made  with  hedges  without  ditches,  as  well  as  with 
them.  The  lad  are  greatly  preferred  :  and  fome 
farmers  fay,  "  A  hedge  without  a  ditch  is  no  fence.** 

Being  perfuaded  that  pods  and  rails  mud  ere  long 
give  way  to  the  more  permanent  ditch  and  hedge, 
and  that  it  is  bed  to  take  to  thefe  at  once,  I  lod  no 
opportunity  of  gaining  information  concerning  them  ; 
cfpecially  it  was  a  quedion  how  thorn  plants  might 
be  obtained  in  numbers  requifite  for  making  all  my 
fences.  In  the  mean  while  ditches  were  made,  with 
intention  to  place  pods  on  the  banks,  with  two  or 
three  rails  indead  of  five,  as  is  ufual  when  there  is 

no 

*  See  OiBramlU  Hedges,  in  mifcellany  notes. 


19^^  FENCES. 

no  ditch,  until  young  thorns  meant  to  te  raifed 
{hould  be  fit  to  plant  on  the  banks.  Having  white 
thorn  trees  from  Europe,  a  quantity  of  their 
ha\v3  was  fowed,  nor  one  whereof  grew.  In  di^er- 
cnt  years  and  methods  they  were  afterwards  fown,  as 
were  fweet  briar  feeds  to  no  purpofe.*  The  late 
General  Cadwalader  likewife  fowed  haws  of  the 
country  thorn  without  effeft,  until  he  was  informed 
that  young  thorns  were  feen  to  be  grown  through 
cow-dung  dropt  near  a  road.  From  this  hint  he 
penned  up  a  number  of  cattle  and  fed  them  during 
'winter  with  bran  mixed  with  haws.  The  place  was 
then  plowed  up  and  the  dung  of  the  cattle  covered 
\rith  earth.  In  the  next  fummer  the  ^ound  was 
there  abounding  in  young  plants  of  the  countr)-  haw 
or  thorn  tree :  but  they  were  foon  much  injured  by 
grafs  and  weeds,  for  want  of  the  ground  being  pre- 
viouily  fallowed  or  cleaned. 

Afterwards,  about  the  firiT:  of  March  17S6,  I 
procured  a  quantity  of  the  frefhed  cow-dung  to  be 
put  in  a  tub :  warm  water  was  poured  on  it,  for 
reducing  it  to  the  confidence  and  warmth  as  if  in  a 
bead's  maw.  Haws  were  then  thrown  in,  and  all 
was  ftirred  up  and  placed  near  a  conilant  fire,  for 
keeping  it  warm  as  blood,  but  no  great  exadrnefs 

was 

*  The  foil  was  a  clav  loam.  In  the/in^  Icavt  o^  Annap^ 
lis,  haws  of  Englifh  -wrhire  thorn  gr^w  readilv,  without  being 
prepared. 


FENCES.  J95 

"was  obferved.  It  flood  thus  three  days ;  and  was 
at  times  repleniflied  with  more  warm  water,  for  pre- 
ferving  its  heat  and  confidence,  and  frequently  llir- 
red.  A  clean  well  cultivated  piece  of  ground  was 
then  opened  with  a  hoe,  and  the  whole  contents  of 
the  tub  were  drilled  in  the  row  and  covered. 

On  the  26th  March  1787,  I  firft  noticed  that 
young  thorn  plants  were  grown  up  from  thofe  haws 
in  gDod  numbers  and  in  great  vigour.  Had  the 
feeds  been  fo  prepared  and  drilled  in  the  autumn 
1785  when  they  ripened,  they  probably  would  have 
given  plants  in  the  fpring  1786.  With  the  like  pre- 
paration it  is  likely  that  poplar,  afli,  juniper,  cedar, 
fweet  brier,  bramble,  coneiferous,  and  other  feeds 
would  as  readily  fprout  and  grow.  The  ground 
ought  to  be  previoufly  well  prepared,  that  it  may- 
be clean  and  mellow  for  receiving  the  feeds :  which 
growing  in  rows  admits  of  the  plants  being  perfect- 
ly and  eafily  hoed. 

It  was  intended  to  procure  the  hedges  In  two 
ways :  by  fowing  haws  along  near  the  foot  of  the 
bank,  next  the  ditch  where  the  foil  is  bed  and 
deeped,  there  to  remain ;  and  by  tranfplanting 
quicks  from  a  well  cultivated  nurfery.  But  it  was 
prevented  by  the  failure  of  the  feeds,  as  above: 
and  I  removed  from  the  farm  before  I  could  prac- 
tife  the  new  method  of  raifing  thorn  plants  from 
haws.     To  have  good  live  fences  there  mud  not 

onlj 


t06  FENCES* 

only  be  ditches  with  the  hedges,  but  alfo  a  clofe  at- 
tention is  to  be  obferved  to  weed  and  keep  the  foil 
clean,  and  the  hedge  defended  from  cattle  and  fheep, 
cfpecially  during  the  firft  three  or  four  years :  and 
the  young  plants  are  to  be  often  vi/ited,  and  may 
or  not  be  trained  to  grow  intwined  together ;  but 
the  fide  branches  are  to  be  fhortened  from  time  to 
time,  and  in  due  time  the  whole  may  be  plaflied. 
Oaps  on  thefe  vifits  are  to  be  looked  for,  and  flop- 
ped before  they  become  frequented  by  hogs,  dogs 
pr  boys. 

My  ditches  were  4^-^  feet  wide  at  top,  10  Inches 
at  bottom,  3  to  3  ^^-^  feet  deep.  The  common  la- 
bourers of  the  farm,  men  with  fpades,  women  with 
dirt  fliovels  and  hoes,  after  a  few  days  of  aukward 
work,  will  rid  off  thefe  ditches  at  a  good  rate  ;  and 
make  a  permanent  bank  five  or  fix  feet  high  from 
the  bottom  of  the  ditch.  Two  or  three  rails  on 
this,  whilfl  the  hedge  is  growing,  make  a  tempora- 
ry fence  that  nothing  will  attempt  to  crofs.  When 
the  hedge  becomes  full  grown,  there  then  is  a  per- 
fe£i  live  fence,  without  any  expence  of  timber :  an4 
it  is  liable  neither  to  rot  or  to  be  eafily  pulled  down. 

It  is  a  comfort  to  be  aflTured  that  when  dcfigning 
to  have  thorn  fences,  we  can  readily  procure  any 
number  of  plants  from  haws.  The  nurfery  fhould 
be  of  good  fize,  that  the  quicks  may  be  very  abun- 
dant, for  feleding  from  them  the  bcfl. 

"  It 


FENCES.  201 

"  It  Is  a  general  pra£lice  (befide?  the  law)  in 
Scotland,  that  if  one  proprietor  of  land  wiflies  to 
make  an  inclofing  fence  for  his  own  convenience, 
adjoining  to  his  neighbour  who  will  not  join  therein  ; 
then  the  firft  ere^s  the  fence  entirely  at  his  own 
cxpenfe,  without  claiming  any  part  of  the  expenfc 
from  the  neighbour,  until  the  neighbour  avails  him- 
felf  of  it,  by  making  it  a  part  of  a  fence  for  inclof- 
ing on  his  fide  alfo ;  at  which  time  he  pays  to  his 
neighbour  the  half  of  the  original  expenfe  in  mak- 
ing that  fence,   and  is  at  half  the  expenfe  of  up- 
holding it   ever  afterwards.      This   is  alfo   a  rule 
adhered  to  refpefting  partition  walls  that  mutually 
belong  to  adjoining  buildings ;   and  appears  to  be 
confident  alike  with  the  ftric^eft  equity  and  good 
jieiglibourhood."     And.  EiT.  Agr.  28.* 

I  revere  the  memory  of  the  hufbandman  who  has 
left  to  travellers,  the  handfome  legacy  on  the  main 
road  near  New-Cafile,  a  view  of  an  excellent  thorn^ 
hedge-fence,  a  valuable  pattern  for  their  encourage- 
ment or  imitation  ;  and  have  wiflied  to  fee  fome  fort 
of  monument  on  the  fpot,  erefted  by  the  neighbours 
or  the  county,  for  perpetuating  the  memory  of  the 
man  who  lb  early  inflituted  the  important  lefTon. 
^'  Rewarding  thofe  who  introduce  advantageous  prac- 
tices 

♦  By  a  law  of  Pennfylvanla,  if  one  fanner  makes  a  parti- 
lion  fence,  regulators  value  it ;  and  the  adjoining  f iiinei:* 
arc  compelled  to  pay  their  proportion  of  the  coft. 


iOH  TREADING  WHEAT, 

tices  in  hufbandry  is  good  economy  in  nations ;  as 
hufbandry  is  the  mofl  general  and  moil  neceffarj 
employment  of  their  people." 

Doclor  Hart  alfo  obferves  that — "  The  true  geni- 
us of  animating  agriculture  muft  refide  in  thofe  who 
hold  the  reins  of  government,  and  in  gentlemen  of  all 
denominations :  nor  fliould  rewards  be  wanting,  nor 
public  premiums,  nor  marks  of  favour :  for,  as 
agriculture  is  the  most  ufefulfo  was  it  the  first  employ- 
ment of  man,** 

TREADING    WHEAT, 

This  is  an  univerfal  pra£lice  within  the  peninfula 
of  Chefapeak :  and  in  the  early  ages  was  perform- 
ed in  the  old  countries  by  oxen  ;  as  it  ilill  is  in  Bar- 
bary  and  fome  other  countries.  In  Britain,  and  in 
all  the  American  dates  northward  of  Maryland, 
the  flail  is  the  common  inflrument  for  thrafhing  out 
•wheat :  both  modes  are  fixed  habits  in  the  refpe£live 
countries.  Oxen  have  been  tried  in  Maryland,  by 
a  perfon  who  had  been  ufed  to  tread  with  horfes ; 
and  he  found  them  very  exceptionable,  from  their 
immoderate  and  very  frequent  dunging  as  they  trot 
on.  I  have  had  wheat  from  Barbary,  which  was 
extremely  dirty  from  the  tail  of  the  ox. 

Accounts  of  treading  out  fmall  corns  v/ith  horfes 
p.ay  entertain  perfons  who  are  unacquainted  with 

th€ 


TREADING    \^HEAT.  203 

the  praairc;  and  the  method  following  may  affiO: 
farmers  who  are  ufed  to  treading  wheat,  with  feme 
particulars  for  improving  their  praaices.  Until 
fome  other  as  fpeedy  a  method  fnall  be  difcovered 
and  introduced,  treading  cannot  be  dilpenfed  with 
wherever  the  deflruftive  wheat-raoth-fly  abounds.* 

Prejudices  againft  treading  wheat  are  great,  in 
thofe  who  are  unacquainted  with  the  fuperior  me- 
thods  of  performing  it :  mine  were  fo  w^hilfl  I  was 
but  beginning  to  be  a  farmer  in  a  country  where  the 
flail  was  very  little  ufed,  and  when  treading,  as  far 
as  I  knew,  was  conducted  in  a  flovenly  manner. 
Some  farmers  ftill  fliift  their  treading  floors  fi-om 
field  to  field  ;  from  whence  much  rough-feeling  dir- 
ty wheat  goes  to  market.     Thofe  who  have  a  pro- 
per earth,  in  a  perpetual  floor  ufed  for  treading 
crops  of  wheat,  year  after  year,  will  have  it  gloffy, 
and  the  wheat  from  it  will  have  no  more  dirt  than 
if  thrafhed  on  plank  with  flails ;  provided  they  arc 
attentive  in  taking  off  the  horfe-dung  direaiy  as  it 
is  dropped,  and  let  not  the  horfes  flop,  to  ftale, 
until  each  journey  ends  and  they  are  led  off,  and 
provided  that  as  foon  as  the  treading  feafon  is  over, 
they  cover  the  floor  thick  with  flraw  or  rubbifh,  to 
remain  till  a  week  or  two  before  they  are  to  tread 

in 

♦  The  thrnfmng^iU  xertainly  gives  this  method ;  and  In 
every  refpea  is  fuperior  for  getting  out  vheat  trcni  its  ilriw. 
But  it  is  not  ufed  in  America  tliat  I  know  of. 


204  fREADING    WHEAT."" 

in  the  next  feafon.  They  may  fodder  cattle  on  It 
all  winter,  keeping  it  full  of  litter,  for  preventing 
horfes  from  finking  in  and  poaching  the  ground,  in 
winter,  fpring  or  autumn :  and  thus  improve  the 
floor  to  be  harder,  more  glolTy  and  perfect.*  When 
horfes  in  halters  are  led  in  rank?,  each  rank  kept  as 
far  apart  from  the  others  as  can  be,  time  is  given 
for  taking  off  dung  dropt  before  the  next  rank  tram- 
ples on  it :  and  in  this  detached  way  of  travelling 
the  horfes  are  kept  cool.  It  is  important  that  they 
do  not  clofe  their  ranks. 

I  was  always  much  hurt  by  the  injury  done  the 
horfes  in  my  former  aukward  manner  (the  common 
praftice  of  the  country)  of  drivmg  them  loofe ;  and 
wirhal  their  driving,  kicking,  and  joftling  each  other, 
helter-ikelter ;  hut  am  now  quite  pleafed  with  tread- 
ing wheat,  fince  haltering  and  leading  them  in  ranks 
prove  the  labour  or  injury  is  lefs  than  from  plough- 
ing them  half  a  day  in  a  maize  field.  The  above 
are  the  only  objections  occurring  to  me  againfl  tread- 
ing wheat  with  horfes.  The  advantages  are — an 
entire  crop  of  wheat  beat  out  before  the  end  of  July, 
'  which  perfectly  fecures  it  againfl  the  moth-fly  ;  it 
leaves  but  little  opportunity  to  pilferers,  and  the 
wheat  is  ready  for  an  early  market,  often  the  befl:. 
To  hire  thrafiiers  or  put  my  labourers  to  thraih  it 

out 

*  To  xvet  treading  Soors  vriih.  a  Treak  extracl  or  tea  of  flai- 
feed,  might  add  to  the  clofenefs  and  glofs  of  their  earth. 


TREADING    WHEAT.  205 

out  with  flails,  the  time  fpent  would  give  abundant 
opportunity  for  thieving,  which  is  avoided  by  the 
fpecdy  method  of  treading,  when  in  about  a  fort- 
night three  thoufand  bufliels  may  be  fecured,  inflead 
of  eighty  to  a  hundred  days  that  flails  would  require. 

Treading  floors  are  fixty  to  a  hundred  feet  dia- 
meter. Some  are  only  forty  feet ;  others  again,  a 
few,  one  hundred  and  thirty  or  more.  The  larger 
the  diameter  the  eaiier  to  the  horfes.  I  never  knew 
a  horfe  difordered  on  a  large  floor,  but  on  a  floor 
Ibcty  feet  or  under,  it  is  not  uncommon.  The  track 
or  path,  on  which  the  Iheavcs  are  laid  and  the  horfes 
tread,  is  twelve  to  twenty-four  feet  wide.  In  com- 
mon, the  floors  are  inclofed  by  fences ;  and  the  horfes 
are  driven,  between  them,  promifcuoufly  and  loofe, 
each  prefllng  to  be  foremoft  to  get  frefli  air,  jofl- 
ling,  biting,  and  kicking  the  others  with  bitternefs. 
Their  labour  is  thus  in  the  extreme.  Small  floors 
have  a  centre  flake,  to  which  hangs  a  rope,  or  a 
pole  and  fwivel,  and  four  or  five  horfes  being  fiift- 
ened  together,  travel  round,  upon  the  Iheaves, 
abreafl. 

I  prefume  not  to  offer  in(lru£lion  to  farmers  who 
are  experienced  in  treading  on  large  permanent  floors 
properly  kept  and  with  horfes  in  regular  ranks  :  but 
to  the  lefs  experienced  and  judicious,  I  fubmit  the 
method  I  have  ufed  of  late,  as  the  befl  within  my 

knowledge. 


206  TREADING    WHEAT. 

knowledge.  M7  floor  is  unincumbered  with  an^ 
fence.  A  barn  fixry  fcei  fquarc  is  in  the  middle  of 
it;*  around  which  the  horles  travel,  on  the  bed  of 
Iheaves  about  twenty-five  feet  broad  ;  fo  that  the 
diameter  of  the  whole  treading  floor  is  one  hundred 
and  thirty-five  feet. 

Previous  to  laying  down  the  fheaves  of  wheat, 
the  prefent  ftate  of  the  air  and  probability  of  its 
continuing,  during  the  day,  dry  and  fair,  or  its 
threatening  a  thunder  gufl  with  rain,  is  confidered. 
If  the  conclufion  be  to  tread,  then  the  morning  is 
fuffered  to  pafs  away  till  the  dew  is  off  the  ftacks 
and  floor.  A  row  of  (heaves  is  firft  laid  flat  on  the 
floor,  with  the  heads  and  butts  in  a  line  acrofs  the 
track  of  it  as  a  bolder  for  receiving  other  flieaves 
with  their  heads  raifed  on  them  ;  and  thefe  flieaves 
range  with  the  path  and  circle,  the  butts  refling  on 
the  floor.     Other  flieaves  are  in  like  manner  ranged, 

with 

*  This  had  been  an  old  tobacco  houfe,  which  was  convev- 
cd  in  pieces  to  a  newly  defigned,  more  convenient  farm  yard, 
at  a  new  choice  for  the  homeftead  and  centre  of  bufmefs  ;  the 
farm  being  full  three  miles  long,  and  the  old  homeftead,  Sec. 
filed  at  one  end  of  the  farm.  This  old  houfe,  now  re -built, 
was  rather  for  zJJyeher  to  my  cattle  than  for  holding  grain  in 
the  ftraw  or  for  threftiing  grain  out.  My  grain  was  ftacked 
out  of  doors,  and  trod  out  on  the  floor  round  the  houfe. 
Thsfarm  was  very  incomplete  :  it  was  but  in  outline ;  about 
to  be  changed  from  an  old  tobacco  plantaticrif  to  a  regular 
grain  farmf  divided  into  fix  equal  fields.    ^ 


TREADING    WHEAT.  20/ 

with  the  heads  raifed  on  the  former  flieaves,  till  the 
whole  floor  be  filled,  and  appears  with  nothing  but 
heads  of  wheat,  floping  upwards.  The  thickntfs 
of  the  bed  of  wheat  depends  partly  on  the  length 
of  the  ftraw,  and  clofenefs  and  high  range  of  the 
{heaves  on  the  bed.  Upon  laying  down  the  ilieaves 
for  the  bed,  their  bands  are  cut  on  the  floor  with  a 
knife,  layer  by  layer.  It  is  wiflied  that  the  wind 
come  from  the  weftward,  when  treading.  From 
the  eaftward  it  is  generally  damp.  It  is  preferred 
to  place  the  flacks  eafl:ward  of  the  floor,  for  giving 
2,  free  pafl^age  to  the  better  winds  from  the  weflward. 

In  my  treading,  twenty-four  horfes  are  formed  at 
fome  diftance  from  the  floor  into  four  ranks ;  and 
when  the  floor  is  ready  laid,  one  of  the  ranks  has  the 
word  given  to  advance.  For  the  fake  of  order  and 
regular  work,  the  boy  who  is  mounted  on  one  of  the 
horfes  advances  in  a  walk  with  the  whole  rank  hal- 
tered or  tied  together,  and  enters  on  the  bed  of 
wheat,  walking  the  horfes  upon  the  track  laid  with 
wheat :  another  rank  is  ordered  to  follow,  as  foon 
as  the  firfl:  is  fuppofed  to  have  obtained  a  diflance 
equal  to  a  fourth  part  of  the  circumference  of  the 
bed  :  and  fo  of  the  other  ranks.  They  are  forbid 
to  go  out  of  a  walk ;  till  having  walked  upon  the 
bed  five  or  fix  rounds,  word  is  given  to  move  on  in 
a  fober,  flow  trot,  and  to  keep  the  ranks  at  their  full 
diflance  from  each  other,  as  the  four  cardinal  points 

Qf 


2o8  TREADING    WHEAT. 

of  the  compafs.  Regularity  and  dclibcrrate  move- 
ments are  neceiTary,  for  preventing  confufion.  The 
gentle  trot  is  continued  till  the  horfes  have  travelled 
eight  or  nine  miles ;  which  is  their  firfl  journey,  and 
then  they  are  led  off  to  be  foddered,  watered  and 
reded,  v^-hile  the  trodden  light  llraw  is  taken  off  as 
deep  as  to  where  the  {heaves  flill  lie  fomewhat  clofc 
and  but  partially  bruifed  :  this  is  called  the  firil:  ilraw 
£rit  journey. 


As  foon  as  this  firiT:  ftraw  is  off,  one- third  of  the 
■v^idth  of  the  bed  is  turned  over  on  the  other  two- 
thirds  from  the  inner  dde  or  circle  of  the  bed.  The 
horles  are  again  led  on.  and  trot  out  their  fecond 
journey,  till  the  (Iraw  be  again  light  and  clear  of 
wheat.  It  is  then  taken  off,  as  deep  as  to  what  lies 
more  clofe.  The  horfes  are  again  foddered,  and  al- 
lowed to  reft  whilft  the  outer  third  of  the  bed  is 
turned  upon  the  middle  part  of  the  bed.  Then 
tread  the  bed  a  third  journey,  till  enough.  This 
draw  being  taken  off  the  whole  remaining  bed  is 
turned  up  from  the  floor  and  (hook  out  with  forks 
and  handles  of  rakes.  The  horfes  tread  this  well, 
which  fanithes  their  joumies ;  unlefs  it  be  to  run  them 
awhile  on  the  chaff  and  wheat,  the  better  to  fepa- 
rate  them.  The  whole  being  now  fhoved  up  from 
the  floor,  with  heads  of  rakes  turned  down,  the 
wheat  and  chaff  are  put  up  into  heaps  on  the  floor, 
five  or  fix  on  my  great  floor :  and  thus  is  finiflicd  the 

day's 


TREADING     WHEAT.  209 

day's  wqrkj  in  which  mofl  of  the  time  is  taken  up 
in  breaking  the  (lacks,  laying  down  the  (heaves,  car* 
rying  off  the  draw,  turning  and  (liaking  the  grain 
out  from  amongfl  the  ftraw  :  and  laftly  collefting  the 
chaff  and  grain  into  fecure  heaps  on  the  floor,  which 
is  alfo  fwept  for  faving  fcattered  grains  in  fcparate 
parcels  to  be  next  day  cleaned  feparately  from  the 
general  raalTes  of  chaiF  and  wheat. 

The  firft  journey  Is  the  longed  and  mod  laborious  :• 
but  in  the  whole  of  the  journies,  the  horfes  travel 
but  about  twenty-five  miles  ;  and  that  is  foberly, 
with  frequent  intervals  of  red  and  refrefhment. 
The  heaps  ought  to  be  put  up  in  a  (harp  conical  or 
fugar  loaf  form,  with  more  care  than  dovenly  peo*- 
pie  allow  them  ;  the  fides  even  and  free  from  hol- 
lows, and  fuffer  none  of  the  fweepings  to  be  thrown 
on  the  heaps.  If  rain  falls  on  them,  the  wet  edges 
next  the  floor  ought  to  be  flioveled  up  and  thrown 
on  the  heap  to  dry.  It  is  better  to  clean  and  dore 
the  wheat  without  thus  expofmg  ic  to  rain  j  yet, 
through  necefllity,  I  have  bad  a  great  heap  of  trod- 
den wheat  and  chaff  which  yielded  near  nine  hun- 
dred bufhcls  of  clean  wheat,  cxpofcd  in  the  open  air 
above  two  weeks  without  damage,  notwithdanding 
fome  heavy  rains  fell  on  it.  Now  that  I  have  a  houfe 
at  the  treading  floor,  the  wheat  and  chafTare  dloved 
together  into  it,  from  being  once  fanned  ;  and  after- 
wards the  wheat  is  wcU  cleaned.     As  long  as  the 

O  weather 


310  TREADING    WHEAT. 

"weather  was  dry  it  \^^s  found  bed  to  continue  tread- 
ing tall  the  whole  crop  was  trod  out. 

1  know  of  but  three  or  four  farms  having  houfcs 
within  the  circle  of  treading  floors.  Mr.  Smgleton*s 
invention  is  quite  new.  Four  rows  of  ftout  locuft 
polls  deep  in  the  ground,  form  three  lengthy  divi- 
fions ;  the  fpaces  between  them  being  ten  feet. 
The  middle  part  receives  the  flraw  from  the  treading 
floor :  the  other  two  are  for  wintering  cattle,  which 
feed  at  pleafure  on  the  ftraw,  through  rails  let  into 
the  polls,  and  which  are  moveable.  The  pitch  is 
eight  feet ;  and  the  whole  building  covered  with 
thatch,  is  thirty  feet  wide,  one  hundred  and  twenty 
long,  befides  circular  ends,  according  to  the  fliape  of 
the  treading  floor,  for  holding  chaff,  &c.  ITic 
width  of  the  track,  round  this  building,  is  about 
fixteen  feet ;  and  the  circumference  of  the  floor  or 
track  is  about  440  feet ;  of  which  240  is  nearly  a 
flraight  courfe,  and  2  do  circular  from  rays  of  30  feet. 
Some  farmers  have  a  barn  clofe  to  the  eafl,  the  fouth 
or  the  north  fide  of  their  treading  floor.  Two  in- 
ftances  occur  of  treading  under  Jhelter :  but  their 
owners  eameflly  wilh  their  wheat,  whilfl  treading, 
cxpofed  to  the  fun. 

A  neighbour,  viewing  the  treading  of  wheat  on 
my  floor  as  above  pradifcd,  faid  the  method  is  ad- 
mirably eafy  to  the  hories,  and  that  mofl  of  the  time 

is 


TREADING    WHEAJT.  211 

•is  fpcnt  in  taking  off  and  carrying  a\^'ay  the  Araw : 
but  he  thought  it  would  be  a  faving,  if  the  outer 
half  of  the  bed  fliould  be  trod  till  enough  ;  and  then 
.(hift  the  horfes  on  the  inner  half  of  the  bed  ;  and 
whilfl:  this  is  treading,  the  flraw  to  be  carried  off 
from  the  outer  half,  firfl  trodden. 

Fig.  9,  plate  HI.  The  common  \Vay  of  driving 
horfes  promifcuoufly,  inclofed  by  a  fence;  and  one  or 
two  boys  on  horfeback  following  and  driving  them  j 
in  the  prefent  inftance,  along  the  outer  part  of  the 
bed  of  wheat.  In  this  -wayy  on  a  floor  90  feet  dia- 
meter, I  drove  upwards  of  30  horfes. 

Fig.  10.  My  new  method,  with  a  bam  in  the  mid- 
dle, has  no  fence,  which  would  obftruft  the  wind  in 
paiUng  to  the  horfes :  the  horfes  led  on  in  ranks 
quietly  and  orderly  ;  and  then  ileadily  trotted  round 
on  the  bed  of  wheat ;  at  firft  as  in  the  plate,  on  the 
outer  half  of  the  bed.  Here  my  floor  was  135  feet 
diameter ;  and  the  work  better  performed  with  2^ 
horfes.  It  may  be  as  good  if  not  a  better  way,  16 
have  the  houfc  on  the  outfide  of  the  treading  floor, 
as  at  the  farm  yard  in  plate  1. 

Fig.  II.  A  bam  and  treading  floor,  propofed, 
on  the  principles  of  Mr.  Singleton's  barn  or  cattle 
houfe  and  floor,  a  a  Rooms,  at  the  ends  of  the 
houfe,  clofcd  on  all  fides,  and  floored,  for  ihrafliing 

O  2  on. 


212  TREADING    WHEAT. 

on,  occafionally,  or  for  ftoring  wheat,  chaff,  &c.— 
2.  2.  Stalls,  for  cattle— !-3.  Paffagc  between  the 
ilalls,  to  feed  from.  The  pitch  from  the  ground,  8 
feet — -A  floor  above  to  be  lo  or  12  feet  pitch,  for 
holding  ftraw,  &c. — The  dotted  lines  fhew  the  track 
or  bed  of  wheat  in  treading. 

A  houfe  in  the  middle  of  a  treading  floor,  gives 
fomc  ihade  to  the  track  on  which  the  wheat  is  fpread 
to  be  trod  out;  which  is  difadvantageous.     The 
treader  of .  wheat  dreads  Jhade ;  and   invites   the 
^reatefl:  heat  of  the  fun,  as  being  eflTential  for  tread- 
ing to  advantage.     A  houfe  on  xhcfouth  or  north  qf 
the  floor,  with  one  end  near  the  periphery  of  the 
track,  is  as  much  preferable  to  a  houfe  in  the  middle 
of  the  circle,  as  this  lafl  is  to  a  houfe  covering  the 
whole  circle,  where  the  horfes  are  more  worried 
whilft  treading  under  cover,  the  wheat  alfo  being 
jQiaded,  than  if  they  trod  altogether  in  the  hottefl 
fun.     The  hotter  the  fun,  the  fliortcr  the  work,  and 
more  perfectly  finifhed.     The  houfe  being  on  the 
7iorth  of  the  circle,  cafts  no  ihade  on  the  floor  ;  and 
fcarcely  any  at  a  little  diftance  from  the  fouth  fide. 
The  floor  and  the  wheat  are  fully  expofed  to  the  fun  ; 
which  is  the  firfl  wifli  of  experienced  treaders :  and 
for  all  purpofes  this  houfe  is  here  as  well  placed  as 
if  it  was  within  the  circle.     In  my  deflgn  of  a  farm 
yard  plate  I.  the  treading  floor  and  bam  are  fo  fitu- 
ated. 

A  Method 


BXPERIMENTS,    ^f.  ^IJ 

A  Methsd  of  Registering  Experiments, 

The  following  ftatements  are  made  partly  onprevi* 
oujly  deftgned  experiments  j  and  partly  from  after 
thought  on  refults  of  field  hufbandry.  This  laft  is  an 
eafy  way  of  coUefting  experiments,  without  the  tedi- 
oufnefs  common  in  conducing  previoufly  defigned 
ones.  The  refults  of  well  regiftered  procefs  in  crop- 
ping, often  afford  fuch  matter  for  ftatements ;  efpe- 
cially  when  there  are  comparative  proceffes.  For 
inftance,  you  have  juft  now  plowed  in  feed  wheat,  in 
beds  or  ridges,  and  obferve  the  ground  is  left  rough : 
what,  you  fay,  if  it  was  to  be  now  harrowed  ?  But 
you  determine  on  harrowing  only  every  other  bed 
or  ridge,  and  obferve  the  difference  at  harveft  :  and 
whilft  the  wheat  is  growing  you  will  obferve  all  par- 
ticulars of  it.  You  then  regifter  the  procefs,  the 
rcfult,  and  ftate  the  qucftion  and  anfwer  j  with  what 
elfe  occurs,  in  a  note. 


Experiments 


^J4  EXPEai&fENTS 

Experiments  made  in  Maryland,  in  iy^$,  x  786  •* 
WHEAT  SOWING. 

No.  I.  ASHFIELD. 

Process September  1785. 

i/.>r?v  1.:.. 
Sowed  the  fouth  end  on  maize  ground,  after  it 

was  harrowed  fat,  under  furrow ;  which  formed 

h,eds.     The  refl:  left  gently  rounded  by  harrowing, 

was  alfo  fawn  under  furrow;  and  left  in  moderate 

ridges. 

Result — ■- — yuly  1786. 

The  beds  gatve  plants  equally  ftout  from  the  very 
edg.es,  quite  acrofs  them.  The  ridgrs  gave  plant® 
inferior  about  the  edges* 

Queflion — Are  ridges  or  beds  to  be  preferred  ? — 
JBeds  are  by  this  trial.  (A) 

(A)  The  maize  had  been  thrice  plowed yro;;z  the 
plants,  twice  fo  them ;  which  left  the  ground  rather 
loweft  near  the  maize,  and  higheft  in  the  intervals. 
A  harrowing  immediately  before  fowlng  did  not 
quite  level  it.     The  wheat  fown  on  this  and  plowed 

in, 

*  This  viethod  of  reglftering  experiments  is  taken  from  Mr. 
Jylarjhal.  And  the  experiments  here  inferted  are  from  adual 
proceedings  on  my  farm  at  Wye  in  Maryland. 


IN    MARYLAND. 


^1$ 


in,  and  the  water  furrow  or  clofing  furrow  being 
formed  by  a  double  mould-board  plow  dipt  deep, 
left  the  wheat  on  flat  beds  of  foil  equally  deep  at  the 
edges  as  in  the  middle :  and  the  water  furrow  be- 
tween bed  and  bed  carried  off  redundant  rain. — 
Other  part  of  this  maize  ground,  was  twice  plowed 
ffom  and  twice  to  the  plants.  This  alfo  laid  the 
ground  well,  and  the  wheat  grew  nearly  as  ft  out  on 
thefe  low  ridges  (nearly  beds)  a  very  little  raifed 
above  the  water  furrow,  as  on  the  above  beds :  ex- 
cept that  fome  of  the  field,  having  the  lands  more 
raifed,  was  formed  into  ridges  which  every  where 
ihewed  weak  wheat  at  their  edges.  My  idea  of  bed« 
and  ridges  is,  where  the  lands  are  rounded  down  on 
each  fide  to  nothing  at  the  water  furrow,  they  arc 
ridges :  water  drowns  the  edges,  and  the  foil  is  there 
/hallow  :  but  where  the  edges  are  abru^  (nearly  up^ 
right  like  ftrawberry  beds)  whether  the  lands  are  a 
little  raifed  in  the  middle  or  are  quite  flat,  they  arc 
beds,  whofe  edges  are  raifed  above  the  water  in  the 
furrows,  with  a  foil  more  equal  in  depth  from  edge 
acrofs  to  edge.  The  endeavour  is  to  have  the  beds 
quite ^^/.  In  reaping  ridges,  on  the  right  hand  at 
entering  the  fickle,  and  on  the  left  at  going  out,  the 
reapers  drop  many  heads  of  wheat,  which  are  loft : 
in  reaping  on  beds^  they  cut  evenly  as  the  bed  and 
its  wheat  range. 

WHEAT 


■^t6  rEXPXRIMENTS! 

WHEAT    SOWING. 

No.  II.      MiDFIELD.  2j;  ?3-b^ 

FjiOCESs Septemberiy^$. 

Eight  lands,  each  250. yards  long,  7  feet  wide,  (In- 
cluding water  furrows)  w  ere  plowed  into  ridges,  har- 
rowed, fowed  and  harroived  in  :  eight  others  florjced 
in  :  thefe  were  alternately  repeated  through  feveral 
acres.  The  whole  equally  and  highly  cultivated  to 
5  plowings,  3  harrowings,  and  a  rolling. 

Result July  1786. 

"^  All  very  fine  :  not  the  lead  difcovcrable  difference, 
on  repeated  clofe  infpe£^ion  by  different  people. 

Queftion Is  under  furrow  or  over  furrow  befl? 

Equal   in    this    clean,    mellow,    ridged    or   raifed 
ground.  (A) 

(A)  With  great  prejudices  againft  harrowed-in 
wheat,  I  was  agreeably  furpvrifed  to  find  this  har- 
rowed-in equal  to  the  plowed-in  ;  or  over  furrow 
equal  to  under  furrow.  Harrowing  in,  is  not  un- 
common in  the  peninfula  of  Chefapeak  (evidently 
ufed  for  difpatch)  :  but  their  fallows,  fo  called,  be- 
ing twice  rather  flovenly  plowed,  are  feeded  in  fo 

foul 


XK    MARVLAND.  Zlf 

foul  and  imperfea  a  ftatc,  that  harrowing  In  the  feed 
proves  greatly  inferior  to  careful  plowing  in ;  from 
deficiency  of  preparative  culture,  as  it  feems.     Their 
fallows  are  generally  full  o£  tufts  and  hard  weeds, 
which  fcratchings  with  plow  or  harrow  cannot  re- 
duce.    Even  when  fuch  flrong  weeds  are  turned  in 
together  with  the  feed  wheat,  they  keep  the  ground 
hollow;  which  is  a  ^ifadvantageous  ftate  of  the 
ground  to  a  good  wheat  crop — there  is  a  want  of 
firmnefs— -of  compaftnefs  in  the  foil ;   from  whence 
it  is  that  even  the  richeft  fand-land  gives  fraall  crops 
of  wheat.     But  as  rye  yields  bed  in  light  land,  a 
clay  foil  might  for  rye  be  the  better,  fo  kept  hollow 
by  ftrong  weeds.     My  hope  now  is,  that  it  will  be 
found  on  clean,  mellow,  well  tilled  land  (no  feed 
ought  to  be  on  other')  harrowing  in  will  generally 
prove  to  be  equal  to  plowing  in  wheat.     If  it  fliould 
not,  yet  I  ihould  feel  deteftation  in  ufing  that  method 
of  covering  wheat,  merely  for  the  fake  of  a  ftiort  cut. 
From  a  pra£tice  in  the  Fork  of  Gunpowder,  in  Ma- 
ryland, where  poor  tenants  often  fowed  rye  upon 
ftubble  and  then  plowed  it  in  (the  foil  a  clay  loam) 
it  was  faid  to  give  better  crops  qf  rye  than  when 
fowed  on  fallow.     Upon  fallow,  they  faid,  the  clay 
ground  foon  becomes  too  clofe  for  rye :  but,  when 
fown  on  ftubble,  the  stubble  gives  the  ground  an  ar- 
tificial opcnnefs  when  it  is  plowed  in.     Yet  query, 
of  this  fuppofed  fuperiority,  if  it  is  not  an  apology 
for  indolence,  or   want  of  ability    to  fallow  the 


ixS  EXPERIMENTS 

gronnd  ?  But  it  is  faid,  we  have  not  time— have  noC 
force  for  ploivin^  it  in  :  alas  !  *tis  too  true,  whilft  wc 
feel  not  the  value  of  fpirited  exertion  on  critical  oc- 
cafions,  or  aim  more  at  riddance  than  perfection. 
That  famenefs  of  motion  we  are  ufed  to  indulge  in, 
is  much  againfl  ftout  crops. 

WHEAT    SOWING. 

No.  III.      MlDFIELD, 

PROCESS September  1785. 

South  end,  fown  in  broad Jiat  lands,  and  in  ridges 
y  feet  wide  (^including  water  furrow)  fingk  and 
double.  A  north  and  fouth  direftion.  The  whole 
five  times  plowed,  thrice  harrowed  and  once  rolled  ; 
•—under  furrow. 

Result July  iy86. 

The  preference  very  flriking :  my  overfeer  won- 
dered at  it.  The  ridges  much  better  than  the  broad 
lands. 

Queftion Are  broad  flat  lands,  or  ridges  pre- 
ferable ?  Ridges  are  in  this  inflance  of  a  very  level 
field.  (A) 

(A)  The  foil,  a  good  clay  loam  ("wheat  land)  ly- 
ing pretty  dry  and  level.  The  lingle  raifed  ridges 
were  (»  a  part  of  the  field  which  was  rather  lower 

than 


IN   MARYLAKDi  lY^' 

than  where  the  double  ridges  were  :  from  whence, 
being  wetter,  the  wheat  intheni  was  inferior  to  the 
latter.  By  Tingle  and  double  ridges  is  meant  raifed 
fo  often  by  the  plowings — increafed  in  height,  not  in 
breadth. 

WHEAT   SOWING. 

No.  TV.       MlDFl.ELD. 

PnocESs—'-'Septembcr  1785. 

Six  acres  fown  in  ridges  N.  and  S. — the  reft  with 
mod  of  Afhfield^  fown  in  ridges  and  beds,  E.  and 
W.— *Mbft  of  the  ridges  were  fingle :  forae  double^: 
»  few  triple. 

Result July  i/Sfi^ 

The  north  lides  of  the  E.  and  W.  ridges  were  uni- 
verfally  inferior  to  the  S.  lides.  This  difference  was 
greater  in  the  double  ridges  than  in  the  fingle  ;.andt 
very  little  wheat  or  flraw  grew  on  the  N.  fide  of  the 
triple  ridges. 

Queftion— Are  ridges  in  a  N.  and  S.  or  E.  and"  W. 
direction  preferable?  North  andfouth.  (A) 

(A)  The  beds  fcarcely  (hewed  any  difference  be- 
tween, their  N.  and  S.  fides,  la  fome  fituations  it 
may^  be  neceffary  to  fow  in  an.E.  and  W.  dire£tion .;: 
and  then  beds  ;  not  ridges  Ihould  efpecialiy  be  made. 

ROLLING 


«5«  EXPERIMENTS 

R  OLLING. 

No.  V.     Sanfield. 

Process — April  1786. 

Fifteen  acres  in  clover  were  rolled  with  a  hea\7 
roller,  early  in  the  month  in  a  moift  ftate  of  the 
ground.  Rains  in  May  prevented  mowing  it  till 
June.     Soil  a  clay-loam. 

Result — August  1786. 

The  growth  from  April  contmually  inferior  to 
dovcr  in  a  near  field,  fown  and  every  way  managed 
as  this ;  except  its  not  being  rolled.  The  foils  alike ; 
and  till  the  rolling,  the  growth  of  both  was  equal, 
and  equally  promiling.  ' 

Queftion — Is  rolling  clover  in  the  Jpring  advanta- 
geous ?  It  is  difadvantageous,  as  feems  from  this  com- 
parifon,  on  a  moist  clay-loam. 

WHEAT   SOWING. 

t  ■ 

No.  VI.       MiDFIELD ASHFIELD. 

Process — September  1785. 

Sown  in  ridges  and  beds,  feven  feet  wide,  inflead 
of  5-i-  as  heretofore  water  furrow  included :  200 

acres. 

Result 


IN     MARYLAND.  221 

.    Result — July  1786. 

The  200  acres  were  reaped  in  12  days  with  23 
fickles ;  with  as  much  eafe  as  the  fame  hands  and 
number  of  fickles  were  ufed  to  reap  them  in  12  days 
on  54  feet  ridges  and  beds. 

Queftioh— Are  fields  fown  in  5I  feet  lands,  or  7 
feet  lands  preferable,  for  reaping  whpat  ?  Equal,  by 
this  trial.  (A;  ^ 

CA)  It  was  an  agreeable  furprife  to  find  the  field 
in  feven  feet  lands  was  reaped  and  fecured  in  as  fliort 
a  time  as  formerly  when  in  5!^  feet  lands ;  thefe 
narrow  lands  being  efteemed  beft  with  fmgle  reapers. 
But  a  flrong  and  a  weak  hand  joining  to  cut  down 
the  wheat  of  a  broad  land,  performed  it  with  great 
eafe.     Strong  reapers  cutting  lands  feparately  from 
weak  ones,  often  flop  for  them  j  whilfl  the  weak 
ones,  hurrying  to  get  up  to  the  flrong,  wafle  wheat ; 
but  when  they  join  to  cut  the  fame  land,  the  flrong 
reaper  readily  takes  the  greater  width  of  the  land, 
and  they  keep  together.     By  their  more  orderly 
proceeding,  and  not  over  reaching,  as  fometimes  on 
fingle  lands  is  the  cafe,  they  avoid  cutting  off  heads 
without  flraw,  where  the  fickles  ^nter  or  quit  the 
fides  of  the  ridges.     My  wheat  was  now  cut  cleaner 
and  better  faved,  with  lefs  hurry  than  ufual  on  fin- 
gle or  narrow  lands.     The  reapers  were  men,  wo- 
men, 


A2a  JEXP£RIMENTS. 

men,  boys  and  well  grown  girls.     The  bed  reaper 
and  the  worft  took  a  land  ;   a  fecoiid  beft  and  worft 

.aootber  land  ;  then  two  middling  hands  a  third  land  ; 

irom  whence  a  fteadinefs  and  evennefs  of  work  un- 

.ttfual. 


WHEAT    SOWING. 

No.  MI.     Eastfield. 

PsocLSB'-^Sepiember   1 7  56. 

Sowed  under  furrow,  rather  wet ;  the  foil  left  ia 
clods.    Every  alternate  four  lands,  each  7  feet  wide, 
was  harrowed  after  plowing  in  the  wheat  j  the  other 
-four  left  unharr owed. 

The  refult  cannot  be  fbted  till  after  the  harvcft 
X)f  next  year,  1787.  At  prefent  November  17S5, 
as  in  September  and  0£lober,  what  "R-as  harrowed 
after  plowing  in,  {hews  wheat  of  much  the  bed 
appearance.  The  great  fallow  harrow  proved  too 
coarfe :  the  triangular  maize  harrow,  with  pointed 
or  nearly  chifel  teeth,  performed  well  in  t^Xi 
bouts  10  each  rid^e  of  feven  feet  width* 


c^' 


Tbougbts 


PRINCIPLES  or,  fsfc,  aa3 

Thoughts  on  the  Nature  and  Principles  of  Vegetation,* 

The  earth  preferves  plants  in  their  place :  and 
contains  water  combined  with  panicles  of  matter 
that  promote  their  growth,  and  which  the  water 
conveys  to  the  plants,  at  the  fame  time  that  itfclf  is 
a  diluent  to  them.  The  earth  and  the  atmofphere, 
even  in  the  dried  feaibus,  contain  moifture,  which 
includes  fuch  matter,  however  minute  the  parts  and 
proportions.  The  foil,  then,  bclides  fupporting 
plants  in  their  vertical  or  proper  pofition,  and  the 
atmofphere  imparts  water  with  its  nutritive  combi- 
nations to  plants,  as  a  food  to  tliem.  The  earth 
and  the  atmofphere  may  be  confidered  as  magazines 
of  the  food  of  plants.  The  one  gives  it  immediate- 
ly to  the  roots ;  the  other  to  the  leaves. 

Different  kinds  of  foil  fuit  different  plants :  Co 
which  hufbandmen  and  gardeners  are  attentive  as  a 
faft  known  from  experience. 

I  know  of  no  foil  incapable  of  producing  ufeful 
plants.  We  have  a  poor  earth,  a  whitifh  clay, 
which  though  of  a  fine  grain  and  not  hard  appears 
remarkably  dry,  at  times  when  you  would  expe£l  it 

fliould 

•  The  purport  of  anfwers  made  to  queiies  fele.5led  from  a 
paper  of  the  Board  of  Agriculture,  in  London,  an<i  difperi- 
cd  anxongft  niy  friends. 


2  24  PRINCIPLJE8    OF 

fliould  fhew  conflderable  raoifture.  Oaks  and  chef- 
nuts  growing  on  it  are  all  fcrubs ;  but  pines  growta 
fomc  height  and  Cze.  The  pine  tree  has  a  noble  tap 
root.  There  is  alfo  as  poor  an  earth  which  contains 
much  of  a  rotten  ftone  or  granules  of  an  imperfeft 
ore,  and  another  hungry  looking  foil,  called  black- 
jack land ;  it  is  fandy,  gravelly,  or  clayey,  topt  with 
a  poor  diminutive  grey  mofs  :  on-  this  grow  chiefly 
fmall  fcrub  oaks ;  and  in  a  foil  fomething  better, 
grow  oak  bufhes  four  or  five  feet  high,  loaded  with 
acorns.  Common  clay  I  have  known  to  gro\V'  ftrong 
plants :  in  one  inflance  dug  up  from  two  feet  deepi 
in  the  autumn,  it  was  in  the  next  fpring  fown  with 
melon  feeds :  in  another  inftance,  the  clay  was  turn- 
ed out  from  four  feet  depth  in  digging  a  cellar,  and 
two  years  afterwards  the  hillocks,  as  formed  in  turn- 
ing the  clay  out  of  barrows,  were  fowed  with  me- 
lon, cucumber  and  cimblin  or  fquafh  feeds.  In  both 
inflances,  eighty  miles  apart,  the  growth  and  dura- 
tion of  the  plants  were  excellent.  Probably  the  food 
to  thefe  plants,  which  have  not  much  of  a  root,  was 
nearly  altogether  from  the  atmofphere. 

When  it  is  afked  if  there  are  any  plants  which  will 
grow  perpetually  in  the  fame  foil ;  and  what  are 
they  ?  It  may  be  anfwered,  grafs  will ;  and  that 
hemp  fcems  likely  to  give  perpetual,  or  at  lead  re- 
pealed crops  for  many  years  on  the  fame  ground  a 
little  manured.     It  is  on  the  contrary  a  prevailing 

opiiiioQ 


CJ 


VEGETATION.  225 

Opinion  that  flax  cannot  be  continued,  crop  after 
crop,  on  the  fame  ground,  with  all  the  manure  and 
culture  that  can  be  given  It,  But  who  has  expe- 
rienced it  ?  I  grew  hemp  twelve  years  on  the  (iime  - 
ground,  two  acres,  without  manuring  in  the  time ; 
and  the  failure  was  very  little.  The  ground  had 
been  previoufly  well  manured ;  and  it  had  a  few  in- 
tervals of  reft :  only  a  year  at  a  time.  ,  Maize  and 
tobacco  impoverifli  ground  greatly  :  as  it  feems  much 
from  a  clean  cultivation  expofmg  the  foil,  frefli  and 
frefli,  to  a  powerfully  exhaling  fun  with  but  little  of 
Ihade  from  April  till  September.  But  I  have  known 
ground  cultivated  conftantly  in  tobacco,  many  years  j 
being  frequently  manured. 

Some  plants  receive  moft  of  their"  food  at  their 
roots,  from  the  earth  ;  and  it  may  be  fome  food  is 
received  greedily  by  them,  and  other  food  is  in  part 
rejected.  Other  plants  fucceeding  thefe,  may  re- 
ceive it  more  al  the  leaves  from  the  atmGfphere  ;  or 
take  at  the  roots,  what  was  avoided  by  the  former. 
The  peculiar  nature  and  fitnefs  of  the  food  which 
different  kinds  of  plants  require,  muft  be  adapted  to 
the  abforbing  faculties,  and  the  organization,  or  the 
mechanifm  and  ftru^ture  of  the  veffcis  of  plants,  by 
which  they  refpe^lively  receive  and  afTimiiate  their 
nourifliment.  From  whence  it  may  be  expelled  that: 
foil  no  longer  fuitable  to  fome  fpecies  of  plants,  will 
produce  and  promote  the  growth  of  fome  others. 

V  ^  Soil 


226  PRINCIPLES    OF 

Soil  is  exhaufted  by  certain  plants  depriving  it  of 
the  vegetable  food  depofited  in  it.  Every  crop  in 
hufbandry  takes  forae  :  and  though  the  atmofphcre 
fupplies  the  ground  with  more,  yet  it  is  feldom  equal 
to  what,  in  the  fame  time,  the  plants  take  from  the 
ground.  Crops  of  grain  often  repeated,  efpecially 
caufc  the  impoverifliment  or  exhauflion.  Food  of 
plants  is  gradually  reflored  to  the  ground  that  has 
been  exhaufted  by  fevere  cropping.  Whilft  the 
ground  is  fuffered  to  reft  and  fettle  into  hardnefs,  the 
accelTion  is  very  flow :  the  ground  cannot  readily 
drink  in  the  moifture  lodged  on  it  from  the  atmof- 
pherc.  Depofited  on  the  hard  ground  it  is  foon  evapo- 
rated. When  the  ground  is  not  trod  clofe  by  animals 
pafturing  on  it,  it  will  continue  fomewhat  open  and 
mellow,  for  readily  imbibing  moifture  w-ith  its  nou- 
riftiing  combinations.  But  by  long  rcfting,  ground 
gradually  fettles  into  a  compadlnefs,  and  the  tread  of 
beafts  adds  greatly  to  its  confolidation. 

In  the  extenfive.  country  of  the  peninfula  of  Chefa- 
peak,  there  is  no  appearance  oi  calcarious  matter  in 
the  foil.*  There  indeed  are  on  forae  of  the  banks 
of  rivers,  Indian  colle£lions  of  oyfter  fhells,  clofely 
confined  to  the  edges  of  the  banks.  They  are  very 
little  applied  to  the  fields :  and  I  know  of  but  one 
inftance  of  their  being  fo  applied.     The  clays  there, 

having 

*  This  is  faid  of  its  appearance,  ^\4thout  any  chemical  exa- 
rnination  having  been  made  of  the  foil. 


VEGETATIOK.  22/ 

having  the  appearance  of  marl,  tliat  I  have  fcen,  do 
not  cflFer vefce  with  a^ids.  A  gre^c  deal  of  gravelly 
and  fandy  poor  land,  is-  within  the  peninlula  ;  and 
there  is  much  good  wheat  land,  which  yields  the  moft 
perfect  grain,  preferred  by  miilers  for  producing  fu- 
perfine  flour :  and  Eng'.ilh  peas,  fown  early  in  the 
garden  way,  are  every  where  a  fure  crop.  I  know 
lands  in  Maryland  which  have  been  under  crops, 
moftly  maize,  upwards  of  an  hundred  years ;  and  in 
the  lafl:  forty  or  fifty  years  in  maize  and  wheat,  al- 
ternately, with  one  year  of  reil,  unfown ;  and 
though  they  fhew  no  appearance  of  any  calcarlous 
matter,  yet  they  yield  perfect  grain.  Pool's  liland 
1  have  long  known :  in  all  which  time  it  has  been 
cultivated  in  two  fields,  alternately  in  maizs  and 
wheat.  Its  former  proprietor  who  fold  to  mc,  and 
other  old  people  have  aiTured  me  that  maize  with 
one  year  of  rell,  had  been  the  conTrant  culture  of  it, 
till  wheat  near  fifty  years  ago  took  place  of  the  lay 
or  years  of  refl ;  W'hich  introduced  the  conrfe  to  be 
maize,  and  wheat  \  fo  that  one  field  was  in  maize, 
the  other  in  wheat,  without  any  manure.  All  ma* 
nure  v/as  applied  to  lots  of  tobacco,  till  tobacco  was 
dropt  about  thirty  years  ago.  The  foil  is  a  rich 
hazel  loam  on  a  good  clay,  I  believe  it  has  been 
cultivated  abo^e  120  years  chiefly  in  maize  and  to- 
bacco :  and  dill  the  prefcnt  tenant  procures  fure  crops- 
of  perfeft  grain,  much  above  the  medium  of  the 
country  in  quantity  and  quality.  His  crops  arc 
P  2.  maize 


228  PRINCIPLES    OF 

maize  and  wheat  alternately ;  yet  the  foil  fhews  no 
appearance  of  calcarious  matter. 

Till  lately  I  never  heard  that  calcarious  foils  are 
more  favourable  to  clover  than  other  foils.  At  Wye 
in  the  peninfula  of  Chefapeak,  where  there  is  no  ap- 
pearance of  calcarious  matter  in  the  ground,  clover 
thrives  admirably  well.  I  once  fowed  there,  on 
wheat  which  was  fown  on  maize,  the  ground  having 
been  many  years  cultivated  in  corns,  without  being 
ever  manured,  70  acres  with  clover  feed,  which 
gave  good  pafture  :  but  war  prevented  its  being  re- 
newed. I  had  before  been  ufed  to  mow  good  clo- 
ver from  lots  of  dunged  ground,  on  this  Wye  farm. 
It  was  intended  to  repeat  fowing  clover  feed,  and 
extend  it  to  all  fields  of  winter  grain  ;  with  the  hope 
that  the  clover  plowed  in  together  with  the  remains 
of  the  grain  stubble ^  year  after  year  would  gradually 
meliorate  the  foil.*  Gypfum  did  not  anfwer  as  a 
manure  (the  farm  being  nearly  furrounded  by  a  fait 
water  river).  The  fields  were  about  200  acres  each : 
farm-yard  manure  not  much  j   and  a  want  of  grafs 

was 

*  For  our  encouragement  herein  fee  2dpartof  Tranfaclions 
of  New-York  fociety  of  Agriculture,  pa.  106,  where  is  the  re- 
port of  a  fuccefiful  experiment,  in  improving  ''  very  poor 
"  loomy  land  grown  over  with  mofs,  and  yielding  fcarcely  any 
"  paflure.  It  being  plowed  in  the  Jpring,  and  fo'ZL/ed  nvith  do- 
"  ver  feed  alone,  four  quarts  an  acre  ;  the  next  year  it  pro- 
**  duced  a  confiderable  quantity  of  hay  ;  which  was  the  '.nlj 
"  crop,  and  the  land  was  much  better  afterwards." 


VEGETATION.  229 

U'lis  a  want  of  live-flock,  and  of  every  thing  propor- 
tionable to  the  fize  and  quality  of  the  farm. 

Well  plowed  foils  in  general,  and  all  mellow  found 
foils  retain  moidure  a  due  time :  but  they  iliould 
have  the  faculty  of  readily  imbibing  moillure,  rather 
than  of  holding  it  long  flagnant :  every  frefli  accef- 
llon  of  moifture  brings  with  it  an  accelTion  of  the 
combinations  of  water,  as  a  food  to  plants :  and  it 
is  better  that  the  accelBon  be  gradual  and  frequent, 
than  feldom  and  in  gluts.  Cleaning  and  pulveriling 
foil  are  means  of  its  receiving  and  imbibing  moifture 
from  the  air.  Manures  add  to  the  means :  and 
fome  are  efpecially  remarkable  for  attracting  moifture 
in  the  driefl  times,  when  mod  \ranted.  Gypfum 
dull  is  noted  for  having  this  property  ;  which  there- 
fore to  the  lands  in  xlmerica,  diflant  from  the  ocean, 
gives  great  fertility.  But  in  Britain  furrounded  by 
the  ocean,  and  otherwife  abounding  in  moifture,  it 
is  faid  to  be  of  Httle  eiEcacy,  as  alfo  it  is  the  cafe  near 
our  coafl  and  bays.  Attentive  obfervers  fay,  where 
the  gypfum  dufl  is  applied  to  plowed  land,  an  adlual 
moiilure  is  to  be  feen  in  the  drieft  times. 

There  are  fandy  foils  in  America,  nearly  barren  for 
want  of  texture.  "Water  paifes  rapidly  through 
them,  and  manures  have  little  to  a£l  on.  Sandy  foils 
are  lefs  adapted  to  manures  of  the  warm  fermenting 
kinds,  than  clay  foils.     Great  rains  long  continued 

arc 


53^  PRINCIPLES    Of 

2JC  more  injiiriotis  to  maize  growing  on  fand  fields, 
than  on  day  or  loam.  They  waih  and  carry  down 
all  before  them,  and  the  dilution  is  esceiUvc.  Maize 
thrires  better  on  fandy  foil  in  dry  feafons  than  v.ec 
feafons :  provided  the  plowings  or  horfe-hoings  have 
been  and  arc  continued  ro  be  inccffant  in  changing 
the  furfaces  of  the  foil,  till  the  taiTel  and  cars  ihoot 
out.  Droppings  and  remains  of  plants,  as  is  expe- 
rienced of  the  Magothy-bay  bean,  alfo  green  drcff- 
ings  from  plants  plowed  in,  improve  fandy  foil. 
When  it  is  faid,  dung  finks  in  fandy  foil,  it  may  be 
better  faid  that  having  but  little  to  aft  on,  its  effeft 
isfcarcely  feen.  Give  the  fand  tenacity  and  body, 
by  adding  to  it  a  clay  foil,  and  then  dung  it ;  even 
try  virgin  clay  and  fand  well  dunged.  I  have  feen 
hemp  grown  very  high  on  a  mafs  of  deep  loofe  fand, 
near  a  tobacco  houfe ;  and  doubt  not  but  that  the 
richnefs  in  the  fand  was  in  vegetable  food  accumu- 
lated chiefly  from  tobacco  fcraps ;  which  are  greatly 
adapted  to  drink  in  moifture  from  the  air,  and  to- 
bacco abounds  in  vegetable  falts.  Manures  which 
ferment  are  beft  for  clofe  foils.  Dung  and  clay  foil 
meeting,  effeft  mnch  good.  Green  dreifings  from 
buckwheat,  clover  and  the  like,  are  advantageous  in 
fandy  foils,  as  well  as  in  flrong  foils.  It  therefore 
feems  they  cot  only  ferment  and  open  the  ground 
(beft  in  clay  foils)  but  alfo  depoiit  their  falts  and 
other  vegetable  matter,  for  attracting  humidity  from 

the 


VEGETATION.  2^t 

the  air,  and  gently  flimulating  as  well  as  aftually 
feeding  the  plants,  in  fand  as  well  as  in  clay  foil. 

Soil  is  in  the  befl:  Hate  for  receiving  feeds  of  plants, 
in  fpring  and  autumn  ;  as  being  feafons  of  temperate 
heat.  The  ground  being  clean  and  well  pulverifed, 
the  feedfman  is  to  follow  and  fow  clofe  after  the  plow 
or  harrow  on  the  frefti  earth  ;*  and  the  feed  is  in- 
flantly  covered,  clofe  after  the  feedfman  :  befl  in  the 
evening  and  morning.  A  fermentation  of  manure* 
in  the  ground,  at  fome  times,  and  lively  foils  when 
fuddenly  warmed  after  winter,  at  other  times,  occa- 
fion  the  ground  to  fmoke,  as  it  is  called.  The  fud- 
den  warmth  dilates  the  ground  and  gives  a  fpring  to 
moifture,  which  afcends  from  the  earth  more  vifibly 
than  in  common.  Rivers  of  ice  andhoufe  tops  alfo 
emit  fuch  vapour  at  times  of  fudden  warmth  and 
thaw. 

The  fun  evaporates  a  part  of  the  humidity  lodged 
on  ground  expofed  to  it,  before  the  moifture  can  be 
foaked  in.  Shade  defends  it,  againft  the  fun  effeft- 
ing  a  quick  evaporation.  Shade  therefore  gives  the 
ground  more  time  for  drinking  the  moifture  in  with 
its  nouriftiing  contents  derived  from  the  atmofphere  : 
and  low  plants  probably  emit  an  effluvium  to  the 

ground, 

*  Kliyogg,  the  Swlfs  farmer,  fays  this  of  fpring  Barley;  but 
the  rcverfe  of  "juhcat ;  which  he  fliys  is  better  for  being  fown 
fome  days  after  plowing  the  ground :  and  fo  fays  Mr.  Macro, 
of  wheat  on  clover.  Pa.  93. 


t^i  PRINCIPLES    OF 

ground,  of  an  ameliorating  nature.*  Sheltering 
ground,  in  fumraer  or  winter,  feems  better  than 
wholly  expofing  it  to  the  fun  in  furamer  or  to  froft 
in  \rinter.  Temperate  heat  is  probably  bed  for  the 
foil.  I  think  but  little  of  froft  as  an  improver  of 
foil.  It  indeed  breaks  clods ;  but  the  attentive 
farmer  will  not  plow  his  ground  too  wet  to  occaCon 
them.  FroU:  is  cold,  and  fnow  is  cold ;  but  fnow 
prevents  fevers  blafls  from  fweeping  off  the  genial 
warmth  of  the  ground,  which  with  moiflure  nalu- 
rally  afcends  to  the  furface  of  the  earth.  Moiflure 
is  chiefly  evaporated  by  the  heat  of  the  fun  in  fumr 
mer,  and  by  keen  winds  in  frofly  weatherf.  Even 
ice  is  reduced  by  thefe  winds.  Pour  water  on  the 
fleps  of  the  north  fide  of  your  houfe,  in  a  time  of  the 
feverefl  freezing  and  windy  weather :  it  quickly  is 
formed  into  a  fheet  of  ice ;  which  continually  dimi- 
nifhes  afterwards,  and  in  fome  days  will  be  fwept 
off,  according  as  the  wind  is  more  or  lefs  powerful. 
I  do  not  believe  that  frofl  or  keen  winter  winds  im- 
prove foils  by  an  introduction  of  nitre.  If  fuch  wea- 
ther 

*  ExceiUvc  fliade,  fuch  as  would  deprive  the  plants  altoge- 
tlier  of  the  fun,  or  of  due  light,  or  power  to  emit  their  effluvia 
and  extend  an  atmofphere  of  their  own,  or  receive  gentle  and 
invigorating  air,  is  not  meant ;  but  only  a  due  fhelter  and 
defence  againfl  injury  from  'in}7nodsrute  exhalation. 

7  It  is  not  meant  but  that  the  wind  is  alfo  a  powerful  mean 
ef  evaporation  in  fummer  as  well  as  winter. 


VEGETATION.  ^33 

thcr  improves  foils,  how  rich  ought  to  be  the  foils 
of  the  high  latitudes !  There  is  it  feems,  at  leafl  in 
weather  free  from  ice,  a  continual  afcent  and  defcent 
of  moifture  with  its  combinations,  vibrating  from  the 
earth  to  the  atmofphere,  and  from  this  again  to  the 
earth.  Does  fevere  froft  interrupt  its  rout  or  inter- 
courfe  ?  What  then  is  the  confequence  ? — When 
ground  (heltered  by  a  hollow  fodder  rick,  during  a 
frofty  winter,  Oftober  till  April,  proved  for  years 
more  produftive  than  where  cattle  were  fed,  in  front 
of  it,  and  there  dropt  their  dung  and  urine,*  was  it 
becaufe  of  particles  of  rich  Hciflure  rufliing  thither 
from  all  points,  where  being  fheltered  from  frofl  and 
wind  they  were  concentrated  for  future  gradual  dif- 
fufion  to  plants  ?  Here  the  ground,  protefted  from 
keen  winds  and  left  open  and  mellow,  is  in  condition 
for  abforbing  nutriment  in  moiflure  from  all  direc- 
tions, unobftrucled  by  frofi:,  and  unevaporated  by  fun 
and  wind.  Or  did  effluvia  from  the  fodder  and 
corn-huiks  within  the  rick  or  fodder-houfe,  effect  the 
improvement  of  the  foil  ?  Or  was  it  from  both  ;  at 
the  fame  time  that  the  tread  of  cattle  hardened  and 
untilled  the  foil  which  was  unlheltered  ? 

The  common  air  gives  neceffary  motion  to  plants  ; 
which  with  heat  promotes  digeftion,  and  a  degree  of 
circulation  within  them  conducive  to  their  growth 

and 

♦  See  of  :iils,  pa.  125. 


^34  PRINCIPLES  or 

and  perfection.  Earth  is  not  the  food  of  plants ; 
hat  together  with  the  atmolphere,  it  contains  their 
fcxxJ.  Both  are  generally  reqoifite  to  the  perfection 
of  them.  Soil  receives  from  the  atmofphere,  and  it 
feems  the  atmofphere  from  the  foil,  in  a  vibrating 
mode,  the  nouriihment  of  plants  ;  a  due  portion 
■whereof,  on  its  paifages,  is  caught  and  conveyed  to 
their  roots  and  leaves.  Heat  caufes  evaporation,  or 
promotes  the  afcenfion  of  particles  of  moii'hire  from 
the  earth  to  the  atmofphere.  This  afccnt  of  moifturc 
is  moftly  in  the  day  ;  as  the  defcent  of  it  is  in  the 
night,  whilil  the  heat  c^he  air  is  diminiflied  :  and  fo 
probably  are  the  times  of  afcent  and  defcent  of  the 
juices  of  plants,  in  a  kind  of  circulation  within  them. 
The  air,  which  is  never  quiefcent,  glides  alon?  the 
forface  of  the  ground,  and  commits  to  it  particles  of 
water  with  its  combinations  nutritive  to  plants,  which 
it  drinks  in  the  readier  and  the  deeper  for  the  ground 
being  pulveriied  and  mellow.  If  the  ground  is  clofe 
and  hard,  fuch  particles  depofited  on  it  are  not  rea- 
dily imbibed,  but  are  foon  evaporated.  Of  this  I 
have  obferved  inftances  in  fields  of  maize.  The  well 
pnlverifed  and  frequently  ftirred  maize  field,  ihews 
moLlure  on  the  ground  till  late  in  the  morning,  and 
never  any  drops  or  fpangles  of  dew.  The  lefs  ftirred 
ground  -flicws  fuch  fpangles  early  in  the  morning  ; 
but  they  are  foon  evaporated  as  the  fun  advances, 
fcarcely  any  of  the  dew  having  funk  into  the  ground. 
I  have  viewed  with  admiration,  in  the  drieft  fummers, 

2 


TEGETATION.  ^^$ 

a  clay-loam  which  had  been  incejantly  ph'xed  and 
harrowed,  turned  up  by  the  plow  with  a  fine  colour, 
given  it  by  moidure.  This  earth  had  fome  adhefion 
of  its  particles  and  crumbled  j  for  it  was  dry,  in  a 
^uft,  only  on  the  furface,  a  little  way,  and  moiil  un- 
der that  from  dews  continually  abforbed  :  and  more- 
over, in  the  driefl:  times,  in  winter  as  well  as  furamer, 
temperate  warmth  with  moifture  afcends  from  the 
interior  of  the  earth  to  its  furface,  and  then  to  the 
atmofphere.  On  the  driefl  fpot  of  earth,  fcrape  a 
place  level ;  and  put  a  glafs  tumbler  on  it,  bottom 
up.  The  glafs  will  fliew  moifture  on  its  inner  fur- 
face. Well  pulverifed  foil  will  catch  and  abforb 
much  of  the  palEng  moifture,  for  the  benefit  of 
plants,  which  otherwife  would  proceed  direftly  to 
the  atmofphere. 

Plants  receiving  a  large  portion  of  their  nourifh- 
ment  immediately  from  the  air,  rather  fertilize  than 
impoverifli  foil,  where  they  are  not  carried  off  from 
the  ground,  or  fuffered  to  run  "to  feed.  There  arc 
ftrong  marks  of  plants  meliorating  ground  by  their 
leaves  and  other  offal  dropt,  and  probably  from  their 
perfpiration ;  efpecially  of  the  pulfe  kind.  Grain 
and  all  feeds  rob  the  earth  more  than  bulbous  or  tap 
rooted  fruit  does. 

Wheat  ought  to  have  antipathy  to  the  barberry 
bufli  5   becaufe   for  forae  diflance  round  it  whear  is 

ufual'y 


236  PRINCIPLES    or 

ufually  rufted,  although  the  reft  of  the  field  be  free 
from  it.  The  barberry  leaf  and  fruit  are  very  acid. 
Is  it  an  acid  effluvium  from  the  bufli  that  corrodes 
the  wheat  plant  ?  If  fo,  is  rui1:  or  blight  or  mildew 
generally  produced  by  means  of  acid  or  fharp  effluvia 
floating  over  entire  fields  of  grain  from  other  acid 
plants  or  corroding  fubftances  ? 

Under  growing  chefnut  trees,  fcarcely  any  plant 
thrives ;  nor  under  the  oak.  On  the  other  hand  the 
locuft  tree  is  an  improver.  Every  thing  thrives  un- 
der it :  the  ground  about  it  is  better  than  what  is 
not  near  it,  evidently  to  the  eye.  The  black  walnut 
and  the  native  black  mulberry  trees  meliorate  the 
ground  :  but  none  equal  the  locuft  tree  ;  the  pods  and 
leaves  whereof  feera  to  have  the  effefl  that  the  hum- 
ble annual  plant  called  Magothy-bay  bean  has  on 
fandy  foils.  Ginfeng  grows  beft,  and  is  fcarcely  if 
at  all  to  be  found  growing  but  in  ihady  grounds  in 
clofe  forefls  :  and  this  is  the  cafe  with  many  other 
plants.  I  never  faw  any  kind  of  fnake-root  grow 
but  in  the  woods.  Maiden-hair  grows  in  (hade, 
Tvhere  the  fun  fcarcely  ever  (liines.  The  mofies  de- 
light in  ihade,  under  and  on  the  north  fide  of  trees. 

Plants  on  the  fea  coaft,  when  not  greatly  expofed 
to  bleak  winds,  thrive  well.  I  have  feen  great 
growths  of  maize  there,  on  very  fandy  foil :  and  on 
the  banks  cf  the  Chefapeak,  a  wide  fea-water  bay, 

the 


VEGETATION. 


237 


the  fields  are  thought  to  bear  cropping  better,  and 
fooncr  recover,  than  lands  diftant  from  the  bay.  AH 
the  old  cultivated  lands  mentioned  in  page  227  are 
en  the  bay  or  fait  rivers. 

Heat  increafes  faccharine  matter  in  plants  and 
brings  them  to  perfection.  A  fmall  field  of  maize 
was  planted  late.  The  Auguft  following  was  very 
wet  and  cool.  There  was  little  hope  of  the  maize 
ripening.  I  ihewed  it  to  a  fenfible  farmer,  who  ad- 
vifed  me  to  let  it  grow  merely  for  fodder.  But 
having  read  of  the  blades  of  fugar  canes  being  fome- 
times  dripped  off,  in  Antigua,  for  maturing  the  canes 
in  wet  cool  weather,  thefe  maize  plants  were  very 
early  ftripped  of  their  blades,  from  the  joint  where 
the  ears  were  peeping  out  down  to  the  ground,  for 
gaining  more  warmth  from  the  fun  to  the  ground  and 
plants.  We  were  afterwards  both  furprifed  at  the 
ripening  of  a  good  part  of  the  corn.  Maize-ftalks 
abound  in  faccharine  juice.  MelalTes  and  fpirit  have 
been  produced  from  them,  for  domeflic  ufes. 

The  germ  of  many  kinds  of  garden  feeds  pcrifiies 
when  the  feeds  are  fown  in  a  hot  feafon  on  a  hot 
ground,  although  raked  in.  I  alfo  fufpeCl  the  germ 
of  wheat  is  fometimes  injured  when  fown  in  the  hot 
feafon,  as  in  Maryland,  and  left  forae  time  on  the 
ground  before  it  is  covered.  But  clover  feed  ftrewcd 
in  March  or  April  on  fields  of  v/hcat,   or  on  barley 

fown 


238  PRINCIPLES    or 

fown  in  the  preceding  autumn,  or  in  the  fame  March 
or  April,  never  fails,  although  uncovered.  I  have 
generally  fowed  fo,  in  March  ;  and  it  is  the  common 
practice  in  February,  March  or  April.  Thus  lefs 
feed  anfwers :  all  comes  up  :  none  is  fmothered  un- 
der lumps  of  earth. 

Farmers  fay,  plants  grow  moftly  in  the  night. 
They  obferve  it  chiefly  of  maize ;  which  at  times  has 
furprifmg  ftarts  in  growth. 

Manure  promotes  the  growth  of  plants  by  its  fer- 
mentation and  warmth  opening  the  foil  for  readily 
admitting  humidity  from  the  air  with  its  nutritious 
contents ;  and  for  facilitating  the  extenfion  of  the 
tender  fhoots  of  roots :  or  by  attrafting  moifturc 
with  its  combinations  from  the  earth  and  atmofphere  : 
or  by  its  depofiting  matter,  that  if  not  of  itfelf  nutri- 
tious to  plants,  at  leaft  it  promotes  the  accefs  of  fuch 
as  is  nutritious  to  it.  It  is  faid  ground  is  fometimes 
exhaufled  by  a  ftimulus  from  manures.  The  plant  is 
a  more  likely  fubjeft  of flimulation,  as  liaving  life; 
and  a  ftimulus  to  the  plant  may  be  a  mean  of  promot- 
ing its  growth.  It  alfo  is  faid,  lime  exhaufts  land  by  its 
ftimulus.  It  Indeed  has  injured  ground  v/hen  applied 
in  too  great  quantities ;  which  tends  to  reduce  foil, 
in  fome  degree,  to  a  mortar :  and  the  cauftic  quality 
of  lime  when  applied  immoderately  may,  fo  will  fait,, 
deftroy  plants,  and  alfo  a  part  of  their  nutrition  de- 
pofited  in  the  foil.  But  in  facl,  it  is  nearly  altoge- 
ther 


VEGETATION. 


thcr  repetitions  of  exhaufling  crops  taken  from  the 
ground  which  effe<^  the  mifchief.     The  farmer  gives 
once,  and  takes  for  ever.     If  lime  exhaufts  ground 
by  deflroying  the  nutrition  depofitcd  there,  it  muit 
be  without  having  promoted  any  growth  in   the 
plants.     The  injury  done  by  lime,  is  faid  to  be  from 
ftimulating  the  ground,  and  with  a  kind  of  violence 
forcing  it  to  yield  great  crops  ;   whereby  the  foil 
is  exhaufted :  and  indeed  at  length  it  is  exhaufted 
— by  the  crops — not  by  the  manure.     It  is  better 
to  give  the  ground  a  moderate  portion  of  lime  at 
a  time,  and  apply  it  more  frequently.     In  England, 
it  is  laid  on  to  upwards  of  300  bufhels  an  acre : 
in  Pennfylvania  to  ico,  as  meafured  whilft  unflack- 
ed:   and  ought  to  be  renewed  in  feven  or  cicrht 
years.     It  fometimes  happens  with  lim.e  and  with 
gypfura,  and  even  with  dung,  that  after  having  per- 
formed wonders,  they  are  fo  much  thought  of  and 
fo  long  depended  on  that  the  foil  is  cropped  to  death, 
and  then  it  is  faid,  the  manure,  though  at  ilrfl  fuc- 
ccfsful,  has  by  its  ftimulation  exhaufted  the  ground 
and  left  it  fteril  :  when  in  fadl  the  numerous  and  fe- 
vere  crops  exhaufted  it— a  common  cafe.     A  farm 
in  Maryland,  reputed  a  poor  place,  was  bought  by  a 
fpirited  farmer,  whom  I  foon  after  vifited  when  his 
plows  were  breaking  up  its  old  lay,  deep.     It  {hewed 
a  good  wheat  foil.     The  hiftory  of  this  edate  is, 
that  an  Englifli  fervant  had  procured  extraordinary- 
crops  from  it  for  feven  years.     His  time  our,  he  went 

oft; 


240  PRINCIPLES     Of 

off;  and  it  was  afterwards  for  many  rears  cultivated 
by  the  mafler  and  his  family  in  their  own  way.  It 
then  obtained  the  character  of  being  a  poor  place  ; 
for  that  Engliili  John  had  worked  its  heart  out  by 
deep  and  much  plowing.  But  the  farmer  who  now 
bought  it  cheap,  cultivated  it  boldly ;  and  thereby 
reftored  it  to  the  good  name  it  had  in  John's  time. 

"Wheat  flrav.'  trod  {hort  in  getting  out  the  grain, 
proved  to  be  fo  conflderable  a  manure,  on  my  Wye 
farm,  that  wheat  fown  after  it,  in  September,  on  the 
ground  to  which  this  ftraw  was  given  in  April  and 
imfantly  plowed  in  muck  '•jcet  2ii^foft,  gave  much  of 
flraw  with  inferior  grain  ;  in  fome  meafure  as  if  the 
ground  had  been  over-dunged.  From  whence  it 
feems  that  flraw  plozued  in  'u;hiht  muck  -juet  from 
foaking  rains  that  have  foftencd  it,  and  in  a  time  of 
due  ivarmtb  in  the  air  for  fermentation  is  a  confl- 
derable manure  :  when  if  it  be  plowed  in  under  lefs 
favourable  circuraflances,  it  is  fcarcely  feen  to  effect 
anv  ?ood. 

The  turf  dikes  to  folds,  ufed  in  Scotland,  prove  io 
be  fuch  excellent  manure,  as  to  fuggeft  the  making 
trial  of  coarfe  hay  and  grafs  mixed  'u.'itbgood  earth,  and 
heaped  up  together  like  the  dikes,  and  {heltering 
them  from  fun  and  rain,  as  for  making  fait  petre ; 
but  leaving  the  fides  open  to  receive  the  rich  humi- 
dity of  the  air. 

Farmers 


VEGETATION.  24! 

Farmers  plow  the  grounds  of  their  orchards ;  and 
lake  from  them  crops  of  potatoes,  clover,  or  corns. 
They  think  it  advantageous  to  the  trees,  to  p 
the  ground  about  them  frequently. 


!c\v 


The  earth  is  more  thoroughly  pulverifed  by  the 
plow  than  the  fpade  :  provided  that  it  is  in  conditi- 
on to  crumble  before  the  mould-board. 

The  kinds  of  vermin  and  infers  in  foil,  which  I 
have  found  hoRilc  to  plants  are  chiefly  worms  and 
ants ;  and  in  the  air,  flies  and  fmall  beetles  of  vari- 
ous kinds.  Until  about  the  year  1772,  the  nioih- 
fly,  defcribed  by  Mr.  Dubarnel,  v.as  extremely  nu- 
merous, common,  and  deftruclive  in  every  year, 
to  wheat  after  it  was  reaped.  They  did  not  afFeft 
plants.  Although  the  taking  notice  of  them  in  this 
place  is  foreign  to  the  queflion  refpe<51:ing  only  plants, 
yet  the  damage  done  by  them  to  wheat  corn,  was 
fo  immenfe  and  fo  conflant  for  near  twsnty  years, 
in  Maryland,  whilfl  all  attempts  to  avoid  them  were 
made  in  vain,  the  defpondcncy  fo  great,  and  the 
accidental  difcovery  of  the  means  of  avoiding  them 
fo  important,  that  the  mentioning  it,  together  with 
the  following  circumftances  cannot  be  here  avoided. 
In  that  year,  encouragem.ent  was  held  out,  for  the 
approaching  new  crop  of  wheat  to  be  Ihipped  im- 
mediately after  harveil:.  The  farmers  exerted  their 
powers,   and  fooner  than  till  then  was  thought  if 

O  could 


242  PRINCIPLES    OF 

could  be  done,  trod  out,  fold  and  delivered  their 
wheat  to  the  fliippers,  who  were  bold  in  this  new 
experiment ;  which  proved  that  wheat  of  this  coun- 
try, keeps  well  in  ihips,  when  carried  to  Europe  on 
being  Ihipped  foon  after  it  is  reaped  :  and  this  get- 
ting out  wheat  immediatel)'  after  harvefl:,  has  con- 
tinually proved  to  be  a  perfect  fecurity  againfl  the 
moth-fly,  from  that  time  to  this.  From  the  year 
1773,  1  ufually  trod  out  and  fold  my  crops  of 
wheat  in  July  or  Augufi:,  of  the  year  when  reaped. 
From  1785,  in  every  year,  on  the  third  day  that 
ray  reaping  commenced,  I  began  to  draw  in  the 
wheat,  and  then  alternately  trod  and  drew  ic  in, 
every  day  during  harvefl:.  It  was  about  the  19  of 
June  when  the  reaping  began  :  24  horfes,  fix  in  each 
of  four  equidiftant  radii,  gently  trotting  on  the 
wheat  flieaves  cut  open,  round  a  circle  of  near  400 
feet,  trod  out  near  200  bulhels  a  day,  medium. 
One  day  416  bufliels ;  the  horfes  driven  hard,  on 
a  wa^er  of  the  overfeer.*  Our  wheat  treads  out 
eafiefl  in  or  foon  after  harveft,  before  it  has  fvvcat- 
cd  :  and  the  feafon  is  ufually  then  very  dry.  This 
moth-fly  was  fcarcely  known,  but  in  the  peninfula 
of  Chefapeak,  and  the  lower  country  of  Virginia 
and  Carolina.  The  HeJJian  flj  is  a  new  comer, 
fuppofed  to  have  been  imported  in  the  ftraw  or  beds 
cf  rh£  mercenary  Heflian  foldiers,  in  the  year  1776. 

It 

*  See  pr.ge  %^.  204.  205. 


VEGETATION.  243 

It  dcpofits  its  nits  or  its  eggs  in  the  plant  clofe  to  the 
ground,  whilfl  growing.     ITie  young  are  there  ia 
the  maggot  (late,   for  fome  time   flationary  ;  and 
feeding  on  the  lender  blanched  part  of  the  flalk, 
wound  and  check  the  growth  of  the  plant.     No- 
thing is  known  to  be  done,  at  prefent,  better  againfl 
them  than  to  give  a  vigorous  growth  to  the  plants, 
by    manuring   and   cultivating   the   ground  well ; 
which    admits    of  late  fowing :    and    this   greatly 
checks  their  progrefs.     A  few  years  ago  they  a- 
bounded  in  the  country  near  Philadelphia  ;    except- 
ing in  the  highly  cultivated  diftri^l  of  rich  land  be- 
low the  city.     There  I  could  not  difcover  the  leaft 
llgn  of  them  in  the  growing  wheat  of  a  number  of 
fields ;    at  the  fame  time  that  on  the  fide  of  the  city 
■  tow^ards  Germantown,  where  the  foil  is  thinner  and 
not   fo  well  cultivated,  few  plants  Vv^ere  free  from 
them  in  the  only  field  that  I  there  examined.     We 
have  alfo  numbers  of  fmall  infects  popularly  called 
loufe,    flea,  8zc.   which  in   autumn   injure  much  of 
the  young   plants  of  wheat ;  like  the  fly  on  turnip 
plants,  chiefly  in  dry  weather.     I  never  knew  grafs- 
hoppers  do  any  uo table  damage  to  wheat,  but  ia 
one  year  ;   when,   in   Maryland,  they  ruined  mod 
of  the  fields  of  wheat,  in  autumn.     It  is  flill  called 
the  grafshopper-year.     On  that  occaflon  I  fowed 
fome  ground  twice,  and  fome  thrice  over  again.     In 
Tvlaryland    is    alfo    a    fly    called,    from    its    fmcll, 
ckinch'bugi   the  fmell  being  fimilar  to  that  of  the 

Q^  2  chinch 


244  BEST    PRODUCT 

chinch  or  bed-bug :  and  I  fufpc^l  that  dropping  its 
wings  at  times,  it  alTumes  fomething  of  the  charac- 
ter of  certain  ants,  which  are  fometimes  with  wings, 
at  other  times  without  them.  The  chinch-bug 
chiefly  injures  maize  plants,  by  wounding  them  a- 
bout  the  lower  joints.  It  is  not  fo  generally  mif- 
chicvous  as  the  moth  and  Heffian  flies :  but  is  it  not 
nearly  allied  to  the  latter,  which  alfo,  in  the  au- 
tumn drops  its  wings  where  it  alights  to  depoftt  its 
eggs,  as  I  am  ajfured  by  an  attentive  farmer  of  Ches- 
ter county. 

NECESSARIES: 

■    Best  Produd  of  Land :    Best  Staple  of  Commerce, 

In  the  winter,  1769,  under  this  title,  I  wrote  on 
the  fchemc,  then  agitated,  for  introducing  into  ge- 
neral practice  in  the  then  American  colonies  the  cul- 
ture oi  filk  and  wine.  It  was  fome  time  afterwards 
printed  and  difperfed  among  my  friends. 

The  phiiofophers,  rather  than  the  politicians  of 
America,  with  the  befl:  motives,  endeavoured  to  in- 
duce the  country  people  to  apply  their  labour  and 
attentions  to  the  culture  of  wine  and  fdk ;  as  it 
feems,  vrithont  confidering  they  might  therein  be  fe- 
conding  the  wilhes  of  a  jealous  connexion  that  we 
(hould  apply  ourfelves  to  cultivating  thofe  articles 

of 


OF    LAND. 


245 


of  luxury,  rather  than  continue  to  depend  on  and 
cultivate  the  materials  of  bread  ;  in  which  we  then 
abounded  as  the  firfl:  ftaple  of  our  commerce,  and 
the  firfl  neceflary  of  life  :  and  it  was  thought  to  inter- 
fere with  the  Britifli  farmer,  though  groundlefsly  ; 
as  Britain  buys  more  bread  than  flie  fells,  which  has 
fmce  been  declared  to  the  king  of  Great  Britain  by 
his  council. 

The  tobacco  colonies  were  already  more  depend- 
ent than  the  bread  colonics  :  and  it  was  obfervable 
that  as  the  culture  of  wheat,  and  the  manufafturing 
it  into  Jlour  travelled  fouthward,  from  county  to 
county  through  Maryland,  the  tobacco  culture  de- 
clined, and  the  people  became  more  happy,  and  in- 
dependent of  the  Britifli  ftore  keepers  who  had  kept 
them  in  debt  and  dependent. 

The  perfons  in  America  who  promoted  the  deflgn 
of  introducing  the  wine  and  filk  culture,  certainly 
did  not  confider  it  as  interfering  with  or  tending  to 
eat  out  the  better  ftaple,  bread:  but  it  fo  forcibly 
flruck  me  with  having  this  very  mifchicvous  tend- 
ency that  I  could  not  withhold  my  opinion  of  it ; 
efpecially  as  it  was  countenanced  by  a  number  of  in- 
rtances  in  hiftory ;  which  I  confidered  as  being  fup- 
ported  by  the  then  a£lual  flate  of  the  wretched 
parts  of  Europe  compared  with  the  more  happy 
countries  of  it — the  fouthern  with  the  northern — 


246  ^^ST    PRODUCT 

xhcjilk  and  whie  countries  with  the  bread  and  beer 
countries. 

It  is  a  principle  of  found  prudence  that  whenever 
in  matters  of  government,  law,  and  commerce,  any 
material  alteration  is  propofed,  we  fhould  beware  of 
latent  confeqnences,  and  look  forward  and  confider, 
however  flattering  appearances  are,  what  may  be 
the  mifchievous  tendency  of  fuch  innovation  when 
adopted.  Iris  better  to  drudge  on  in  a  temperate  and 
middle  state,  than  to  aim  at  loo  much  ;  and,  "  It  is 
*'  not  cafy  to  determine  upon  theory  the  fuccefs  of 
*^  pohtical  innovations." 

The  firll  great  effential  of  life  is  bread.  If  Ame- 
rica had  adopted  the  fchcme,  it  may  be  fuppofed 
that  with  her  filk  and  wine  fhe  alfo  would  have 
made  fome  bread  :  fo  it  is  with  the  poor  peafants  of 
fouth  Europe ;  but  her  labour  and  attention  being 
diverted  more  efpecially  to  railing  the  luxuries^  which 
could  neither  properly  feed  or  clothe  her,  fhe  has 
alas !  only  aimed  at  growing  a  fcanty  flock  of  grain, 
barely  for  family  confumption,  and  falling  fhort  in 
that,  becomes  miferably  dependent  on  foreign  coun- 
tries for  a  fupply  from  them.* 

See 

*  Italy  formerly  exported  com  ;  but  after'A'ards  became  de- 
penderj  on  other  countries  for  its  daily  bread.  This  is  afcribed 
by  the  Roman  authors  to  the  nc^ks  ofiiUaoe.  Columjel.  Pracf . 
Suston.  Aug.  C.  42. "  The  country  about  Volifib,  in  the 


OF    LAND.  ij47 

Sec  the  condition  of  the  fouthern  countries  of 
Europe :  all  Italy,  Spain,  Portugal,  a  great  part 
of  France,  and  till  lately  that  the  cultivation  of  corn 
became  the  firll  objeft  of  the  attention  of  its  govern- 
ment, the  whole  of  France,  employing  their  chief 
labour  and  care  in  cultivating  wine  or  filk :  and 
though  they  are  fine  countries  for  yielding  ivbeat^ 
and  forae  is  cultivated  in  them,  yet  not  aiming  at 
that  article  as  a  staple  of  commerce,  how  conilantly 
are  they  in  want  of,  and  how  dearly  do  they  ^ay 
Grangers  for  bread.* 

In 

iiland  of  Chio  or  Sciros,  in  the  Archipelago,  is  very  pleafant, 
fpacious  znd  fruitful.  The  inliabitants  raife  5000  v/eight  of  filk 
yearly  ;  '•juUh  which  they  pay  their  trilule.  It  is  thought  they  lie 
under  a  curie  of  being  al-ways  deflilute  of  bread"  Thev.  Trav. 
— The  curie  is  but  the  natural  ccn£equencc  of  their  negkfting 
to  cultivate  a  fruitful  country  in  corn,  for  tlie  fake  of  raifmg 
the  gew-gaw  article  filk.  Had  die  tribute  been  referveJ  in 
corny  their  attention  being  thereby  drawn  efpecially  to  that  ob- 
jedl,  the  curfe  of  wajiting  bread  would  never  have  fallen  on 
them. 

"  The  Druzees,  in  Syria,  do  not  grow  corn  enough  to  fup- 
pcrt  thcmfelves  three  months  in  the  year.  They  have  no 
nianufa«5lures.  All  their  exportations  are  confined  to  Jili  and 
cottons  :  the  balance  whereof  exceeds  very  little,  tlie  importaticn 
of  corn ."     Vol.  Syr.  vol.  ii. 

*  It  may  feem  an  odd  pof^tion,  fays  Mr.  Hum;,  that  the  po. 
very  of  tlie  common  people  of  France,  Spain,  and  Italy  is  in 
Tome  meafure  owing  to  the  fuperior  riches  of  the  foil  and  hap- 
plnefs  of  the  climate  :  and  yet  there  want  not  many  rc.ifous 


24^  BEST    PRODUCT 

In  the  war  of  1744,  France  in  the  midftof  almofi; 
uninterrupted  victories  and  conquells,  whilil  her  la- 
bour and  attention  were  applied  to  the  cultivation  of 
wine  and  fiik,  v/as  compelled  to  make  peace  and  re- 
linquifli  her  conquells,  merely  from  a  ivatit  of  corn  ; 
when  her  enemies  had  only  the  barren  ifland  of  Cape 
Breton  to  give  in  exchange.  Ever  fmce  that  fore- 
felt  fcarcity,  it  has  been  her  policy  to  encourage  the 
cultivation  of  corn^  in  preference  to  all  other  articles 
of  land  produce :  feeing  and  feeling,  that  however 
great  and  flouriihing  they  may  be  in  other  refpecls, 
bread  being  wantingj  fubmijpon  must  follow »     This  is 

an 

to  juilifj  this  paradox.  The  fine  vineyards  of  Champaign  and 
Burgundy  are  cultivated  by  peafants  who  have  fcarce  bread  : 
but  the  farmers  and  graziers  are  in  better  circumftances  in 
thefe  countries.     Hu.  EJf. 

Connevfllcut  is  valuable  (or grain  and  padure.  Any  coun- 
try is  happy  vrhere  the  people  in  common  are  plentifully  and 
■wholefomely  fed,  and  warmly  and  decently  clothed  :  thus  it 
is  in  Connecricut.     Dottgl.  Sum. 

"The  inhabitants  o£ the  zvine  couniry  abont  Bingen  on  the 
Rhine,  are  fome  extremely  rich,  and  others  extremely  poor  ; 
the  happy  middle  ftate  is  not  for  countries  the  chief  proJuci 
whereof  is  nvine  ;  for  befides  that  the  cultivation  of  the  vins- 
yardis  infinitely  more  troublefome  and  expenfive  than  the  cul- 
tivatlon  of  grain,  it  is  fubjeded  to  fudden  and  great  rcvolu- 
ticr.-;,  which  at  once  reduce  the  landholder  to  a  low  condi- 
tion."    Tour  through  Germ,  anon  p.  64. 


OF    LAND.  249 

an  axiom  applicable  to  individuals,  as  well  as  to  na- 
tions.* 

It  is  reckoned  by  Mr.  Hume,  bad  policy  in  Britain 
to  obflrua  the  ufe  of  French  wines ;  when  they  ought 
rather  to  be  encouraged  in  the  application  of  their 
labour  in  making  more  wines,  by  the  free  ufe  of  them 
in  England  ;  becaufe  each  new  acre  of  vineyard 
planted  in  France,  for  fupplying  Britain  with  wine, 
would  make  it  requifite  for  the  French  to  take  the 
produce  of  a  Britifh  acre  fown  in  wheat,  in  order  to 
fubfiil  themfelves :  "  and  it  is  evident,  he  adds,  we 
"  have  thereby  got  the  command  of  the  better  com- 
"  modityJ* 

Intimations  have  alfo  been  thrown  out,  in  Ame- 
rica, encouraging  the  people  with  flattering  prcfpefts 

of 

♦  After  the  battle  of  Blenheini,  the  French  army  -vvar.ted  a 
large  fupply  of  recruits  ;  and  there  being  a  great  fcarcity  of 
bread  in  the  country,  the  French  king  ordered  his  public  ftores 
of  bread  to  be  well  taken  care  cf.  The  foldiers  alone  were 
well  fed  out  of  them,  whilft  the  country  people  were  ftarving  ; 
•which  occafioned  them  through  necejjity  to  flock  to  the  army, 

and  inlift  in  crowds.    2  Ha.  Huf.  538. Here  then  we  have 

an  inftance  of  the  application  of  the  axiom  to  private  as  the 

text  is  of  a  ^whVxc  fubml^ion  for  'want  of  bread, Mr.  Hume 

fays,  "  There  are  many  edidls  of  the  French  king,  prohibiting 
"  the  planting  new  vineyards,  and  ordering  thofe  lately  plant- 
«'  ed  to  be  grubbed  up  :  fo  fenfible  are  they  of  the  fuperior  va- 
*'  lue  cf  corn  ever  every  otber  product.^* 


250  BEST    PRODUCT 

of  great  wealth  to  them,  would  they  employ  their 
attentions  in  cultivating  ftlk.  So  it  was  that  theilrfl: 
'James  of  England,  attempted  to  infe6l  the  minds  of 
the  people  of  England.  But  it  is  an  employment 
equally  inconfiftent  with  the  genius  of  the  Englifh^, 
as  of  the  American  people — a  feminine  bufmefs  at 
leaft.* 

Thcfilk  raifed  in  France  yielded  fuch  an  immenfe 
apparent  profit,  that  king  'James  repeatedly  recom- 
mended from  his  throne,  the  raifmg  j*?//^  worms  in 
England :'  but  the  people  fell  not  into  his  fcheme, 
although  perhaps  more  earneflly  preffed  by  him  and 
his  fervants  than  moll  other  matters — even  by  the 
Judges  on  the  circuits,  however  foreign  to  their 
office  ;  and  there  could  be  no  doubt  of  the  filk  worm 
thriving  and  working  as  well  in  England  as  in  other 
parts  of  Europe  j  as  appeared  from  many  experi- 
ments, befides  what  are  recorded  in  the  tranfadtions 
of  their  Philofophical  Society. 

It  was  not  many  years  ere  that  brilliant  bufmefs  be- 
gan to  decline  rapidly,  in  France  ;  where  now  it  is 
quite  trifling  to  what  it  then  was  :  for,  the  ^^  profit 
being  little  elfe  than  apparent ,  was  not  realifed." 

The 

*  Yet  It  has  again  been  attempted,  lately  to  be  Introduced 
into  England,  by  the  focicty  of  arts,  Temp.  G.  III.  Ttun^'s 
Trav.  in  Fr.  98. 


OF     LAND.  251 

The  people  of  England  rejected  the  royal  fcheme 
for  making  them  rich  ;  the  employment  being  fuitablc 
only  to  effeminate,  fpiritlefs,  flow  nations  :  and  it  is 
obfervabic  that,  all  the  world  over,  the  filk  culture 
flouriflies  chiefly  among  people  of  that  cafl: ;  who  are 
every  where  in  a  ftate  of  miferabie  oppreflion  or 
flavery.  The  very  nature  of  the  employment  tends  to 
enervate  that  hardinefs  and  vigor,  which  is  a  general 
effe^  of  manly  labour  and  employment,  and  to  effe- 
minate the  nation  that  fliall  ever  ftumble  on  it.* 

But  it  is  faid,7r/,^  would  be  luomen's  work.  Be  it 
fo  :  yet  if  our  wives  and  daughters,  were  to  raife  as 
m\\c)\Jilk  as  would  purchafe  all  the  clothing  and  food 
wanted,  the  men,  undoubtedly,  would  become  idle 
and  indifferent  to  other  produce  in  quantities.  The 
lands  would  be  but  little,  if  at  all,  cultivated  or  im- 
proved ;  and  the  ivo?nen  performing  in  a  few  weeks 
the  bufinefs  01  raifing  wonns  and  reeling  filk,  would 
become  equally  indolent  for  the  refl:  of  the  year. 
Both  the  men  and  the  women  would,  in  time,  become 
ignorant  of  hufbandry  and  houfewifery.  Nor  could 
the/ilk  more  readily  purchafe  what  we  fhould  want, 

than 

*  '•  A  large  Jili  nuork  has  lately  failed  in  France.  Eipe- 
"  rience  convinces  me  of  infinite  difficultv  in  the  fuccefs  of 
"  fuch  a  manufaftory.  HhzfJth  z.nd  Jlencb  of  the  infeft  are 
"  alib  dilgufting.  I  abandon  tlie  fubjeit  to  its  native  climates  ; 
"  for  in  houfes  it  is  IntohralU  to  the  meatieft  ptafaiU'j."  L.t- 
tcr  to  Mr.  Young,  in  179 1.  17  An.  511. 


ars  BEST    PRODUCT 

than  money  would.  If  a  mountain  of  dollars  was 
open  to  all  the  people,  with  which  they  fliould 
purchafe  what  at  prcfent  they  labour  in  the  fields  to 
produce,  can  there  be  any  difficuhy  in  conceiving 
the  wretchednefs  and  dependency  in  which  a  country 
of  people,  fo  circumflanced,  would  prefently  be 
plunged  ?  How  totally  ignorant  the  next  generation, 
of  agriculture,  commerce  and  the  arts  !  "  The  riches 
"  and  fafety  of  a  country  confifl  in  the  number  of 
'•  its  inhabitants  'u.-ell  e:nployed,^^* 

The  people  of  Carolina,  long  ago,  were  to  be  made 
rich  from  the  culture  of  fdk,  and  they  entered  hear- 
tily on  the  bufinefs,  under  every  encouragement ; 
yet,  in  twenty-five  years,  they  exported  only  2511b 
of  raw  fiLk,  from  their  worms ;  and  in  the  fame  time 
imported  40520!^,  wrought  j  befides  what  was  mix- 
ed with  other  materials : 


*  ''  Near  Prmceion  Nevr-Jeifej,  Anno  1794,  are  large  plan- 
*'  tations  of  the  mulberry  tree,  for  the  culture  of  \hzjilk  rvorm. 
"  Some  of  the  farmers  greatly  objed  to  them,  as  interfering 
"  with  more  ufefol  domeftic  occupations  and  encouraging 
"  kahiis  of  Idlenefs .''     Wanfey's  Journal,  pa.  193. 


A  Tabic 


OF    LAND. 


253 


A  Table  of  Raw  Silk  exported  from  the  Carolinas 
to  Britain,  in  25  years  ;  from  1731  to  1755:  and 
o/"  Wrought  Silk,  alone,  and  ??iixt  in  Stuffs  of  the 
Manufadure  o/"  Britain,  imported  from  thence  into 
the  Carolinas,   -within  the  fame  years  : 


Total. 

Medium? 
ptrann.5 


EXPORTS. 


Silk  with 
vrorfled. 

th. 
537 

892 
I34I 

937 

864 

516 

790 

1177 

877 

1492 

2452 

^35^ 

T  ofkO 

Silk  with 
Inkle. 

lb. 

Silk  with 

Grogram. 

15. 

440 
144 
122 
181 
184 

33"^ 
386 

74 

223 
291 

218 

190 

374 
337 

7 

1296 
615 

590 

2050 

1658 
1065 
1258 

1933 
2060 

2236 

2300 

2634 

40 

34 

50 

7 

1     150 

1 

34982    3669 

1400  .   1461 


291 
ThiT 


254 


BEST    PRODUCT 


This  is  .taken  from  a  ftate  of  Carolina  pubiiHied  by 
DodJIey^  in  London,  in  1761  ;  in  which  the  author 
alio  fays — "  I  cannot  help  exprcfung  my  furprife  and 
*'  concern  to  find  there  are  annually  imported  into 
*'  this  country  (Carolina)  confiderable  quantities  of 
"  Flanders  lace,  the  fined  Dutch  linens  and  French 
"  cambricks,  chintzes,  hyfon  tea,  and  other  goods, 
"  filk,  gold  and  lilver  lace,  Saz.  by  which  means  we 
"  are  kept  in  low  circumflances  ;  and  though  it  may 
*'  have  the  appearance  of  being,  for  the  prefent,  be- 
"  neficial  to  commerce,  yet  it  retards  our  iucreafe, 
"  both  in  people  and  wealth." 

It  cannot  be  thought  I  mean  we  {hould  be  wholly 
employed  in  cultivating ^r,j/;2.  It  is  only  wiihed  that 
we  ihould  not  drop  nor  at  all  relax  from  cultivating 
the  articles  of  life,  to  the  greatest  estent ;  that  in  a 
courfe  of  traffic  we  may  make  luxuries  and  delicacies 
fubfervient  to  them  ;  and  never  let  ncceffaries  depend 
on  luxuries.  In  railing  all  the  neceflaries,  "  the  bet- 
ter commodities''  for  ftaples  of  trade,  that  we  can,  a 
fafe  game  is  played  j  as  we  then  have  a  m0r.1l  cer- 
tainty of  our  real  w^ants  being  ever  fupplicd  ;  and 
there  will  always  be  a  furplufage  of  the  neceflaries 
to  fell  or  exchange  with  llrangers  for  their  delicacies 
and  luxuries,  whereby  our  imaginary  or  artificial 
wants  would  alfo  be  gratified. 

Nor  need  it  be  objected  to  the  making  ivine,  by 

perfons 


OF    LAND. 


'^SS 


perfons  who  may  be  difpofed  to  grow  the  grape  and 
produce  the  wine  for  family  confumption  ;  but  not  at 
all  for  fale,  left  it  be  extended  to  exportation.  Indi- 
viduals will  choofe  for  themfelves,  the  application  of 
their  labor  :  but  it  is  hoped  that  legi/lators  and  men  of 
influence  will  rather  difcountenance  than  encourage 
the  cultivation  of  articles  of  luxury,  in  quantities 
efpecially. 

It  is  not  a  great  many  years  fmce  wheat  firil  be- 
came a  confiderable  article  of  exportation  from  Ma- 
ryland,  and  then  from  Virginia.  Before  which  time, 
afts  of  the  legillatures  of  Maryland  and  Virginia, 
were  not  unfrequent  for  prohibiting  exportation  of 
Indian  corn,  becaufe  of  2.  fear  city  of  it  for  anfwering 
the  neceffary  wants  of  the  country :  and  fo  inconfi- 
derable  was  the  quantity  of  wheat  then  fown,  that 
the  prohibitory  afts  fcarcely,  if  at  all,  ever  mentioned 
wheat.  As  much  Indian  corn  was  cultivated  as  the 
planter  deemed  fufficiont  for  giving  bread  to  his  fa- 
mily, and  food  to  his  horfes  and  hogs.  Some  indeed 
aimed  to  raife  it  for  the  market.  Wheat  was  fown  in 
a  lot  or  patch,  for  giving  puddings,  pics,  and  wheat 
bread  on  high  days.  Tobacco  engaged  the  chief  at' 
tcntion.  The  planter  always  aiming  at  making  as 
much  of  it  as  he  could.  All  dung  was  given  to  the 
tobacco  ground.  What  of  jnaize  corn  the  planter 
could  fparc  from  family  wants,  was  fold  for  rum : 
the  tobacco  was  partly  configned,  and  the  produce 

laid 


256  BEST     PRODUCT 

laid  out  as  well  in  luxuries  as  neceflailes ;  fo  that 
at  the  end  of  the  year,  if  the  planter  was  not  left  in 
debt,  which  he  often  was,  he  had  little  or  nothing 
left  but  his  land. 

It  was  a  flrikin;^  inflance  0^  wheat  bein?-  the  better 
commodity,  that  as  the  cultivation  of  it  advanced  into 
Maryland,  and  then  V'wginia,  proceeding  from  our 
northern  neighbours,  the  demand  and  of  courfe  the 
price  increafed :  and  as  the  culture  of  wheat  pro- 
grelTed  fouthward,  the  country  people  became  more 
improved  in  their  fentiments,  manner  of  living,  and 
independency  of  ftore  keepers,  dealers  in  merchan- 
dize. Between  tobacco  and  hemp,  how  great  the 
contrafl: !  Tobacco  a  luxury ;  hemp  a  neccjfary  in 
great  demand.  It  is  in  every  fenfe  the  hufbandman 
and  politician  can  conlider  it,  "  the  better  commodlty*^* 
—for  private  and  for  public  advantage. 

It  however  may  happen  in  another  century,  that 
fine  materials  and  raanufaftured  goods  will  be  arti- 
cles of  commerce  from  the  interior  country,  far  from 
navigation,  rather  than  bulky,  cheap,  and  heavy  ar- 
ticles, becaufe  of  longhand  carriage  ;  whilft  heavy, 
grofs,  and  cheap  articles  will  be  from  the  countries 
near  enough  to  navigation  ;  of  which  grain  is  one  as 
being  too  heavy,  for  its  price,  to  bear  a  diftant  land 
carriage.  Let  us  then  continue  to  cultivate  bulky 
necfjfaries,  for  the  flaple  of  commerce.     The  more 

bulky 


OF    LAND.  257 

bulky  the  better ;  becaufe  it  employs  more  {hips. 
Wheat  is  therefore  better  than  filk,  as  alfo  for  the  be- 
fore-mentioned reafons.  Tobacco j  although  a  luxury, 
is  better  than  the  luxury  fur  :  and  rice  is  every  way 
better  than  indigo. 

Probably,  the  chief  export  of  produce  in  the  ma- 
ritime country  between  Connecticut  and  James  Ri- 
ver, will  htjlour :  of  South  Carolina,  Georgia,  and 
the  Floridas,  rice,  cotton  and  viaize :  North  Carolina, 
naval  stores  and  maize :  MaiTachufetts  and  other  parts 
of  New  England, j/^,  cattle  and  horfes  :  MiiTiiGppi, 
lumber,  iron,  hemp  !  in  (liips  built  there,  and  never 
returning  they  are  fold  abroad. 

It  is  faid  that  in  all  countries  there  are  fpots  of 
land  too  poor  for  any  other  cultivation  than  of  the 
vine  ;  and  that  it  is  the  cafe  in  America.  I  know  of 
no  fuch  foil  in  our  America ;  and  believe  there  is  no 
foil  fuitable  to  the  vine  that  would  not  produce  fome 
more  ufeful  plant.  There  are  indeed  disirids  of 
countries,  abroad,  poor  and  rocky,  which  produce 
delicious  wines.  They  are  in  wine  countries,  where 
that  culture  has  been  fomehow  introduced,  and  then 
rivetted  on  the  miferable  inhabitants,  who  moflly 
want  bread.  There  are  other  countries  equally ^or- 
iioned  with  rocks  and  poverty  of  foil,  in  as  good  cli- 
mates. Thefe  produce  no  delicious  wine — no  wine 
R  at 


2^$  BEST    PRODUCT,     Iffc, 

at  all,  or  none  for  exportation :  but  they  yield  bready 
abundantly  ;  and  it  is  a  requifite  of  comfort  and  con- 
folation.* 


Where  of  lands  poor  and  rocky,  snly  an  acre  can 
be  cultivated  to  advantage,  of  better  land  clear  of 
rocks,  an  hundred  acres  can  be  well  cultivated,  with 
lefs  labour,  in  fields  of  grain.  In  the  former,  grain 
enough  yor  a  family  cannot  be  obtained  by  culture. 
The  proprietor  of  it  therefore  looks  for  a  plant  which 
will  yield  much  of  foraething  from  little  land :  and 
he  pitches  on  the  grape.  But  the  vine  requires  ma- 
nure ;  and  the  acre  of  grapes  takes  as  much  labour 
and  attention  as  the  hundred  acres  of  wheat.  If 
poor  land  is  bed  for  the  vine,  it  is  fo  only  with  the 
additions  of  manure  and  the  highefl  cultivation. 
Cultivate  poor  land  equally  well,  and  look  about  for 
a  plant  of  more  value,  at  lead:  in  point  of  ufe  ;  hemp, 
flax^  coiton.  But  why  the  vine  ?  If  employment  is 
wanted,  feek  the  better  employment  in  the  better  land  ; 
and  take  example  by  the  fufferings  of  a  great  nation! 
If  however  you  are  pofitively  impelled  to  grow  the 
vine  and  make  wine,  yet  be  fo  conliderate  as  not  to 

lead 


*  The  aboTe  fpeaks  of  entire  couniries,  portioned  with 
rocky  and  poor  foil,  which  is  cultivated  yi.r  producing  •wincy 
and  thefe  want  bread :  but  other  countries  equally  rocky  and 
poor,  regardlefs  ofivine,  are  cultivated _/cr  producing  bread,  and 
therefore  abound  in  it. 


FAMILY     SALT.  259 

lead  others  to  follow  you  in  fuch  barren  foil,  and 
fiich  inferior  employment  and  purfuit.  Rather  ad- 
vifc  thera  to  beware  of  fuch  an  experiment ;  that 
they  may  make  all  happy  at  home  in  an  abundance 
of  wholefome  food,  and  decent  clotbijig,  with  the 
aid  of  their  placid  wives  and  rofy  children,  cultivat- 
ing or  manufacturing  necejpiries  within  therafclves  j 
and  fparing  to  ftrangers  the  furpiufage  of  their  ^rtf/«, 
their  luool,  and  their  hemp  ;  best  commodities  !  choiceil 
materials  of  domestic  and  national  employ- 
ment I* 


FAMILT  SALT. 

Many  houfewives  prefer  blowr.^  or  fine  white  fait 

for   all  purpofes ;   even   for  curing  meat  and  fiih. 

But  their  meat  and  fifh  are  cured  lefs  perfectly  than 

what  the  Hollanders  and  fome  other  people  fait  and 

R  2  barrel 

*  Bread  and  clothing,  in  ever  fo  great  plenty,  cannot  aiTurc 
a  permanency  of  enjoyments,  but  with  the  means  of  iL-'er.ce 
againft  plunctering  nations.  The  eflentiiil  means  of  defence 
are  arms  and  ammun'd'ion  :  thefe  alfo  are  neccjanes  :  and  expor- 
tation of  fuch  of  them  as  are  manufailured  in  the  nadon, 
ought  to  be  encouraged,  till  they  become  one  of  the  Naples  of 
our  commerce  :  for  the  more  they  are  exported,  L'le  more  will 
our  nation  abound  in  them  ;  and  the  fecurer  will  be  cur  peace 
and  independence.  Peace  i?  beft  preferred  by  being  r:adj  tj 
ri^f. 


26o  FAMILY    SALT. 

barrel  up.  Jn  Americaj^  as  far  as  I  know,  we  make 
no  attempt  to  cleanfe  or  refine  the  fait  we  ufe :  and 
our  meat  and  fifti  are  rather  dirty,  and  apt  to  be- 
come rancid  and  damaged. 

The  people  of  England  have  been  ufed  to  refine 
the  fait  wherewith  they  cure  meat :  but  it  is  faid  to 
be  in  an  inferior  degree.  The  Dutch  people  it  is 
faid,  are  fuperior  to  all  others  in  the  purity  of  the 
fait  they  ufe ;  and  that  their  method  of  refining  it  is 
a  fecreu  among  themfelves.  How  beautifully  clean 
and  well  flavored  is  their  meat  and  their  fifh  in  bar- 
rels :  They  are  it  is  faid  obliged,  by  Iwivs  '■x-ell  obfer'V' 
ed,  to  purify  all  the  fait  they  apply  to  provifions  in- 
tended for  exportation  :  and  fo  are  compelled  to  reap 
an  advantage,  in  a  preference  at  foreign  markets ;  as 
well  as  incidentally  to  prefervc  fuch  articles,  in  a 
fiveeter,  ivholefomer  condition  for  home  confuraption. 

The  Dutch  ufe  bay-bXt  from  Spain,  and  Portugal, 
after  having  made  it  very  pure.  Salt  is  produced, 
generally,  by  evaporating  fea  water  :  and  this  is  by 
means  of  the  fun  and  wind,  or  by  boiling  the  water. 
The  method  hj  fun  and  ivind  \s.  flow  and  regular  ; 
which  produces  bay-idXi,  (on  the  fides  of  bays  in 
ponds)  and  the  fpirit  of  the  fait  is  preferved  in  a 
high  degree.  That  hjfire  is  quick^  and  gives  blown- 
fait  J  which  lofes  much  of  its  fpirit  by  a  rapid  cv^po- 

_^-  ration 


FAMILY    SALT.  261 

ration  in  boiling  the  fea  water.  This  fpirit  of  the 
fait  is  eflential  for  keeping  provifions ;  and  when  ex- 
tra£led  and  applied  to  pickle,  gives  an  agreeable  fla- 
vor :  fo  that  ^i7^-falt,  both  as  it  has  lefs  of  the  ifad 
fubftances,  and  more  of  the/pirit  of  the  fait,  which 
is  an  eifential  of  it,  is  preferable  in  its  qualities  to 
blown  or  boiled  fait ;  belides  its  greater  weight  in 
the  bulhel.* 

Lord  DundonalcTs  method  of  refining  fea  fait, 
(which  he  feems.  to  have  applied  only  to  Britilh 
blown  fait)  is  fimple  and  cheap.  An  account  of  it 
will  be  acceptable  to  the  houfewives  who  are  happily 
difpofed  to  have  things  perfe£l,  and  who  would  feel 
aihamed  to  be  behind  their  mod  a£live  and  ingeni- 
ous neighbours  in  the  perfect  neatnefs  and  ufefulnefs 
of  their  produftions.  With  pleafure  they  will  fee 
their  fait  purified  from  the  foreign  mixtures,  which 
tend  to  foul,  make  rancid^  corrode  and  corrupt 
meat.  Befides  Lord  Dundonald's  method,  for 
blown  fait,  given  below,  I  venture  to  propofe  a 
trial  of  another  mode,  for  coarfc  bay-falt,  and  for 
thofe  who  have  not  a  conic  velTel  and  the  means  of 
conveying  and  continuing  the  heat  through  a  flue : 
though  it  is  doubtful  whether  for  want  of  fuch  con- 
tinued 

*  Thc/pirit  of  fea  fait  ^  is  of  the  nature  of  both  the  vitrioGc 
and  the  oitrout  acid.     Cavallo. 


'2,62  FAMILY    SALT. 

Ihmed  heat.  It  will  prove  to  be  efFeftual  but  with 
vafl:  iofs,  with  blown  or  fine  grained  fait ;  when  for 
ordinary  purpofes,  mere  wafliing  large  grained  bay- 
falt  may  fuffice. 

Lord  Dundoiiald' s  Method  of  Rejining  Common  Salt. 

A  veiTel  of  a  conical  figure,  having  a  hole  in  the 
fmall  end,  is  placed  near  a  fire :  the  large  end  up- 
permofl.     It  is  fixed  fo  that  it  can  be  heated  by  a 
flove,  with  a  flue  round  the  veflel.     It  is  filled  with 
fait ;    -2:V  part  whereof  is  taken  out  and  diflblved  in 
'   water,  jufl;  fufficient  to  difiblve  it,  in  an  iron  veflel. 
This  folution  is  made  to  boil,  and  is  then  poured  on 
the  furface  of  the  fait,  in  the  conic  vefi"el.     The  hot 
folution  being   already   faturatcd,  will   diffolve   no 
moTeJea-falt ;  but  as  it  defcends  and  filtrates  through 
the  fait  in  the  veflel,  will  liquify  and  diffolve  the  mag- 
nefia  falita  and  magncfa  'vitriolata,  which  drop  out  at 
the  aperture  of  the  veflel  below.     AVhen  it  ceafes 
to  drop,  take  out  another  -^^  part  of  the  fait  in  the 
veflTel,  which  diflx)lve,  and  proceed  as  before  :  and 
repcR-t  the  like  procefs  with  freih  portions  of  fait 
taken  out  of  the  veflel,  until  what  fait  remains  be 
.  pure  as  is  required.     Three  walhins^s  as  above,  ren- 
der Britifh  made  fait  purer  than  bay-{2\i.* — Each 

operation 

*  So  that  whatever  dirty  appearances  ^.Tj'-falt  has,   more 
tlian  Englifh  fait,  it  is  fo  much  purer  from  thi  corronve  nau- 


FAMILY    SALT.  ^^3 

operation  renders  it  4I-  times  purer  than  it  was  be- 
fore.    Its  purity  will  increafe  in  the  following  pro- 
grcffion  :  the  firft  operation  41'^^^  Second  20  ;  the 
third  91  ;  the  fourth  410  ;  and  the  fifth  1845  times. 
The  fuperior  quality  of  the  fait,  thus  freed  from  the 
bitter,  naufeous,  corrofive  falts  and  injurious 7?^^-^,  is 
he  fays  obvious  to  the  taftc  as  it  is  fuperior  in  its  ele- 
gance and  goodnefs  in  preferving  fifli,  meat  and  but- 
ter.    Newcaftle  fait,  he  adds,  contains  -^V  of  its 
weight  of  thofe  bitter,  putrefcible  falts,  which  aid, 
inflead  of  preventing  putrefaaion.     A  buHiel,  561b* 
of  bloivnMt  contains  54tb  of  thofe  bad  falts.and  mix- 
tures.* 

Lord 

feous  bittern  ^.ndjlack,  that  the  Brilijh  cleaner  looking  fine  fait 
requires  three  purifications,  for  rendering  it  barely  better  than 
the  %-falt ;  although  each  operation  purifies  at  a  four-fold 
rate.     How  very  inferior,  then,  is  the  Mown  fait  for  preferv- 
ing meat,  in  the  ftate  we  buy  and  ufe  it,  without  being  refined. 
—Had  Lord  Dundonald  any  other  fait  refined,  or  in  his  view, 
than  Britifi  bhivn-Jalt  ?   It  feems  as  if  barely  wafhing  bay/alt 
in  water,  will  refine  it  of  its  dirt,  and  make  it  fuperior  to 
bloivn-falt  three  or  four  times  refined  as  above.     To  give  fu- 
periority  to  this  bay-falt,  after  walhing  it  from  dirt,  it  needs 
only  one  of  Dundonald's  refinings.     Then  how  fuperior  would 
it  be  on  three  fuch  refinings  !  yet  I  doubt  of  there  being  any 
injurious  fubftance  attached  to  bay-falt  than  what  is  external, 
on  the  furface  of  tlie  grains, 

•  See  "  Thoughts  on  the  Manufaaure  and  Trade  ol'  Salt ;" 
by  Dundonald  in  a  pamphlet. 


^64  FAMILY    SALT. 

Lord  Dundonald  refined  500  bufheh  of  fait  at  a 
time,  in  one  l^rgt  conical  hopper  inverted. 

Country  families  would  find  It  advantageous  to  re- 
fine their  fait  for  a  year's  purpofes  at  a  time.  Octo- 
ber is  a  leifure  month,  and  fait  is  then  cheap  :  but 
August  might  be  preferable  for  preferving  heat  to 
the  fait  in  the  hopper.  Thus  would  be  always  at 
hand  a  coufideraole  pure  fait  for  curing  fifii,  beef, 
pork,  and  butter.  "When  the  fait  is  refined  and 
dried  it  is  to  be  beat  or  ground  down  till  Jine^  and 
kept  clofe  from  duft. 

When  fait  is  applied  in  a  pozvdcr,  it  inflantly 
flrikqs  into  meat,  effects  its  purpofe,  and  goes  fur- 
ther than  if  it  was  coarfe.  Meat  ought  to  be  struck 
with  poivdercd  fait,  in  the  moment  when  it  becomes 
cool  ;  and  not  left  as  is  common,  for  hours  longer 
even  in  warm  weather.  Tendency  to  putrefaction 
foon  commences ;  and  long  before  it  is  difcerniblc. 
Salting  fhould  precede  this  tendency,  and  fo  prevent 
it ;  for  fait  cannot  fo  elFectually  stop  putrefaction,  as 
it  can  prevent  its  commencement. 

A  Method  propcfed for  Refining  Salt,  hi  Country  Fa- 
milies, en  Lord  Dundonald's  Principles. 

Make  a  hopper  of  four  fides,  as  for  extracting  ley. 

Of  the  quantity  of  fait  put  into  it,  difiblve  a  twen- 

^eth  part,  in  as  much  cold  water  as  will  jufl  diiTolve 

it. 


FAMILY    SALT.  iS^ 

it.  The  refl:  of  the  fait,  before  ic  is  put  into  the  hop- 
per, fpread  and  make  hot  in  a  moderately  heated 
oven  or  pot.  Whilfl:  the  oven  is  heating,  the  folu- 
tion  of  the  twentieth  of  fait  is  made  to  boil.  Now 
place  the  hot  fait  in  the  hopper ;  and  immediately 
pour  the  boiling  folution  over  it.  For  a  fecond  pro- 
cefs  on  the/ame  fait,  take  out  of  the  hopper  another 
twentieth  of  the  fait,  about  the  time  when  the  drip- 
pings of  the  firft  wafliing  are  nearly  ceafed  ;  and  as 
before,  after  diiTolving  it  in  cold  water  and  boiling 
this  folution,  pour  it  over  the  fait  in  the  hopper  :  and, 
preferving  the  heat  well  as  you  can,  repeat  it  till 
enough  refined.  ^ 

All  the  fait  procured  from  fea  water,  before  it  is 
refined,  contains  a  very  acrid,  corrofive  and  ex- 
tremely injurious  fubflance  called  bittern  ;  fo  aftive, 
hot  and  fearching  it  is,  that  cafks  can  fcarcely  be 
made  to  hold  it ;  and  alfo  a  magnefial  fubftance 
C3.\\ed  JIack.  They  are  fo  connected  with  the  pure 
fait,  and  adhere  to  it  with  fuch  firmnefs  that  it  has 
been  fuppofed  they  cannot  be  fufficiently  removed 
by  common  wafliings  in  water  :  at  lead  not  without 
lofs  of  a  confiderable  part  of  the  pure  fait. 

It  feems  that  when  common  fait  is  cryilallizing, 
the  grains  are  pure  ;  and  confifl;  of  httle  elfc  than 
the  muriatic  acid,  a  purging  fait,  and  a  trifle  of  mag- 
nefial earth,  with  fixed  air :  but  when  the  fait  is 

drawn 


266  FAMILY    SALT. 

drawn  oat  of  the  liquor  -where  it  was  formed  into 
grains  there  adheres  to  the  furface  of  every  grain, 
an  injurious  porcion  of  bittern  and  of  the  magnefial 
earth  c^t.WcdjIack,  and  much  dirt.  It  ahb  feemed  to 
me  that  wafhing  off  the  extraneous  fubilances,  would 
leave  the  fait  confiderably  purified.  In  confequence 
of  thefe  reflections,  I  made  the  following  experiment. 

A  boK,  open  at  each  end's  3  feet  deep,  and  i  o 
inches  fquare,  had  a  ledge  nailed  on,  within  it  and 
near  the  lower  end  :  on  which  was  placed  a  moveable 
frame  covered  with  doubled  coarle  open  canvafs.  for 
keeping  the  fait.  The  fait  was  put  on  this.  Upon 
the  fait  a  hke  frame,  covered  with  a  fingle  piece  of 
coarfe  open  canvafs,  was  placed  for  receiving  and 
fpreading  the  fpring  water,  which  was  then  flowly 
poured  on  the  canvafs ;  the  box  being  fufpended. 

The  quantity  of  fait  was  half  a  bufhel,  weighing 
39:^.,  in  its  grofs  moiil  Hate.  The  firil  portion  of  wa- 
ter was  two  gallons,  a  quart  pot  full  at  a  time ;  which 
carried  down  with  it  dirt,  bittern,  ficc.  through  the 
mafs  of  fait  and  lower  canvafs.  The  hquor  fell  into 
a  tub,  under  the  box,  and  was  very  dirty.  Four 
hours  afterwards,  two  more  gallons  of  fair  water 
were  poured  on  the  upper  canvafs ;  and  the  fait  in 
the  box  was  left  all  night  to  drain.     It  was  then  very 

dean 


TAMILY    SALT.  'l^'J 

clean  and  fair ;  weighing  in  its  moid  (late  (after  hav- 
ing been  fo  waflied)  28ft> 
Dried  in  an  oven  i$\ 

Moiflure  evaporated         2I 

But  it  is  more  agreeable  to  confider  it  by  the 
bufliel.     Then,  a  bujhel  of  this  fait  would  weigh,  be- 
fore it  is  wafhed,  78^ 
— when  dried,  in  an  oven,  be- 
fore it  ii  wafhed,  as  below,     7 1 

Moifture  evaporated         7!^ 

A  bufliel  wajhed  and  left  moht  561b*  as  above ;  when 
dry  51  fc  pure. 

— Inferior  fait,  obtained  from 

thewafliings,  dry  15 


-66^  for  ufe. 


—dregs,  dirt,  bittern  and 
flack  ;  and  thrown  away 
in  /kimming 


Total  grofs  dry  fal  t,  as  above,         7 1  ^ 
7itb  dry;  grofs. 
(i^     dry;    fit  for   ufe,   after   being  waflied:    of 

which  15*  inferior. 

5tb,  lofl  in  ikimming,  dregs,  &c. 

The   i5fe  of  ordinary,  and  much  inferior  (lilt, 
were  recovered  by  boiling  down  the  water  which 

drained 


268  FAMILY    SALT, 

drained  through  the  mafs  of  fait  in  the  box,  after 
it  had  flood  to  be  clear.* 

An 

*  Tlie  box  ufed  for  wafhing  the  fait,  had  been  applied  to 
fikrlng  malt-wort  in  brewing  family  beer.  In  one  of  which 
proceffes,  not  thinking  of  fuch  an  eflped:,  I  was  furprifed  to 
fee,  on  pouring  fair  water  on  the  fand  in  the  box,  the  day 
after  wort  had  been  ftrained  through  it,  in  order  to  wafli  the 
fand,  that  the  wort,  prefled  on  by  the  column  of  water,  ran 
off  for  a  while  quite  rich  in  the  extraft  of  malt ;  and  then,  all 
of  a  fudden,  the  water  followed,  with  fcarcely  any  apparent 

mixture  of  the  two  fluids. The  ufe  of  this  fand  filtre  to 

wort,  fuggefted  the  benefit  that  might  be  derived  from  fome 
fuch  contrivance  In  purifying  the  ordinary  water  drunk  in 
fome  parts  of  the  country :  and  the  fad,  of  horfes  running 
on  fand  iflands  on  the  coad  of  Maryland  and  Virginia  and 
fcooping  holes  in  the  beach  on  the  fea  fide,  when  the  tide 
falls,  and  thereby  procuring  frefli  water,  led  me  to  defign  a 
hox  of  tubes  vibrating  in  a  fpace  of  about  fix  feet  fquare,  fo 
as  to  admit  of  50  or  60  feet  of  filtration  tlirough  fand  ;  tliere- 
by  I  hoped  that  frefli  water  might  be  obtained  from  fea-water 
poured  into  a  refervoir,  as  a  head,  and  paffing  54  feet  do-^-n, 
then  as  many  up,  and  fo  on  to  the  end  of  the  tubes ;  fome- 
what  like  the  afcent  and  defcent  of  water,  in  ebbing  and 
flowing  of  the  tides,  through  the  fand  on  the  fea-fhore :  and 
if  it  Ihould  fail  of  procuring  frefh  water  from  fea-water,  yet 
it  would  be  an  excellent  filtering  machine,  for  clarifying 
fpring-water. — Since  writing  the  above,  the  experiment  has 
been  made ;  and  a  total  failure  to  obtain  frefh  water  is  the 
refult.      The  horfes  may  difcover  fpots   where   frefli  water 

oozes  out  of  the  beach. And  noAv  I  aik  myfelf,  how  can 

Jand  pofllbly  decompofe  fait  water  ? 


FAMILY    SALT.  269 

An  objeftion  is  made  by  country  people  to  bay- 
fait,  as  being  "  too  ftrong.*'      Strong   of  what  ? 
too  flrong  of  fait  ?   If  a  buQiel  of  %-falt  weighs 
84^,  and  a  bufliel  of  blown-hXx.  weighs  but  $6"^ ; 
and  a  bufhel  of  the  %-falt  is  applied  to  the  fame 
weight  of  meat,  for  which  they  find  a  bufliel  of 
the  blown  is  fufEcient,  the  former  mud  then  fupcr- 
abound  as  84  to  56 :   and  thus  it  is  that  meat  is 
fometimes  "  overfalted  and  hardened,'*     If  the  large 
gi-ained  fait  be  ground  down  to  the  fize  of  fmaller 
fait,  meafure  for  mcafure  will  be  nearer  to  an  equa- 
lity of  fubftance,  in  both  kinds  of  fait  j  but  weight 
for  weight  will  be  flill  nearer. 

Cents, 
ao  b.  of  bayizXt  at  841b.  =  l68olb.  at  80  c.  p.  841b.  or  a  bufli.  .  1600 
ao  b.  of  i/ow/;-falt,  j61b.  =1120,  at  80  c  p.  561b.  or  bufh.      1600 

Difference  560,  at  80  c.  p.  ditto  •  '800 

2400' 

So  that  80  cents  worth  of  %-falt,  performs  as 
much  as  120  cents  worth  of  blown'{d\\. ;  and  the  lat- 
ter, though  it  contains  more  of  the  bad  fubflances, 
cofls  50  per  cent  more  than  the  former,  for  making 
pickle.  For  dry-falt'mg  the  cofl  of  grinding  would 
be  a  trifle ;  which  in  pickling  is  (lived. 

It  is  faid  by  Lord  Dundonald,  that  the  diflblved 
magneflal  fiilts  drop  out :  but  what  comes  of  the  ■/,  - 

of 

*  Two  figures  on  the  right  hand,  in  atiy  fttm  of  cent  u  hemg 
dotted  off,  all  on  the  left  are  dollars. 


C/O  FAMILY     SALT. 

of  fait  in  the  folution  ?  Is  this  4o  attached  to  the 
general  mafs  of  fait,  whilft  the  water  of  the  folution 
carries  down  the  magneCal  dregs  ?  If  it  is  fo  attach- 
ed, there  is  no  waiie  of,  the  -^V  of  diffolved  fait. 
Chemifts,  I  believe,  countenance  the  fuppofition 
that  the  fait  in  the  folution,  attaches  to  the  mafs  of 
undiflblved  fait,  whilil  the  dregs  continue  united 
with  the  water,  and  are  carried  off  by  it. 

Although  the  common  rule  for  making  pickle, 
that  it  fhould  bear  an  egg,  may  anfwer  for  fome 
purpofes,  as  where  the  thing  pickled  is  for  early 
ufe,  yet  for  making  2i  full  and  true  pickle,  fufficicnt- 
ly  flrong  for  preferving  meat,  fifh  and  butter  during 
a  long  voyage,  it  is  prefumable  that  the  folution 
ought  to  be  boiled  down  till  the  fait  begins  to  cry- 
flallize ;  which  is  difcovered  by  a  fine  fcum  on  the 
top  of  the  liquid,  whilil  it  is  flill  over  the  fire.  The 
water  is  then  faturated  with  fait,  and  the  pickle  is 
.  perfe£l. 

It  would  be  a  fortunate  circumflance  if  houfe- 
wives,  butter-makers  and  falters,  were  impreffed 
with  a  warm  convi£tion  of  the  very  important  fupe- 
riority  of  the  Dutch  refined  fait,  over  our  grofs  im- 
pure/alt, and  even  over  the  Britijh  refined  fait !  the 
effect  of  which  fuperiority  is  f]:rikingly  evident  in 
the  fuperior  condition  of  their  barreled  filh.  I  have 
compared  Dutch  falted  herrings  with  Britifli.     The 

Britilh 


BUTTER.  271 

Britifli  herrings  were  fine  and  large  :  far  fuperior  to 
the  American  ;  and  were  clean  and  well  preferved  : 
but  the  fuperiority  of  the  Dutch  herrings,  though 
fmaller  than  the  Britifh,  was  great  in  the  neatnefs^ 
and  efpecially  in  the  fai'or — Their  filh,  with  the 
pickle,  were  a  perfume. 

BUTTER. 

The  following  method  of  making  butter  has  been 
recommended,  from  the  practice  of  a  butter  maker 
near  Philadelphia  :  though  feveral  particulars  of  the 
procefs  are  omitted,  as  not  being  remembered.  The 
chiuTiing  was  in  the  evening  ;  and  when  the  butter 
was  come,  the  milk  was  drained  off;  and  then  the 
mafs  of  butter  was  put  in  a  wooden  tray  or  bowl ; 
and  a  good  quantity  of  fine  fait  was  thrown  over  it, 
to  remain  undifturbed  in  a  cool  place  till  morning. 
In  the  morning  it  was  again  drained,  and  daflied 
with  cold  water  for  wafliing  off  the  remaining  fait 
and  milk.*     It  may  be  next  dried  by  a  foft  cloth 

taking 

*  Dafhing  on  water,  and  dien  without  paufe,  clearing  the 
butter  from  every  particle  of  water,  is  widely  different  from 
wafhing  butter  by  kneading  and  letting  it  remain  at  all  in  the 
water.  Very  good  butter  for  colour,  flavor  and  confiftence, 
is  made  by  one  who  wafhes  it  twice,  but  never  lets  it  remain 
in  the  water  a  moment.  Another  butter  maker  fays,  mix  //v 
fait  in  the  lutter  in  the  evening,  and  let  it  rejl  till  the  morning  ; 
then  work  out  the  liquor  ;  but  never  let  it  be  once  touched 
with  water. 


2/2  BUTTER. 

taking  up  the  remaining  moiflure  ;  and  without  ever 
wetting  it  again,  flowly  work  it,  and  put  it  up  for 
ofe.  The  bell  butter  I  ever  faw-,  had  never  at  all 
been  wet  with  water ;  as  I  was  fatisfaftorily  affured. 

The  following  method  of  potting  butter  is  pro- 
mising without  my  knowing  of  it  beiog  practifed : 

Bed  common  fait  t^o  parts 

Sugar  one  part 

5^/  peire  one  part :  beat  them  together,  blend- 
ing them  completely.  One  oance  of  the  mixture, 
for  every  pound  of  butter,  is  well  worked  into  the 
butter ;  which  is  then  put  up  clofe  for  ufe. — It  is 
£ud,  a  comparative  exj>eriment  has  been  made  of 
it,  with  butter  only  falted ;  and  its  fuperioricy  was 
great: — That  cured  with  the  mixture  being  of  a 
rich  marrowy  confiilence,  and  fine  colour,  never 
having  a  brittle  hardnefs,  nor  tafle  of  fait :  and  at 
three  years  old  it  is  found  perfectly  fweet. — It  is  to 
ftand  3  or  4  weeks  before  it  is  ripe  for  ufe  :  the 
falts  will  not  be  fooner  blended,     i  Rep. 

Freih  butter  in  balls,  placed  in  kegs  of  brine  bear- 
ii^  an  egg,  probably  would  not  keep  long  :  but,  a 
brine  fo  weak  would  admit  of  the  predominant  wa- 
ter rendering  the  butter  rancid ;  and  might  even 
adnut  of  maggots  in  it.  But  would  this  be  the  cafe 
of  a  tmefaJI  brincy  when  a  little  of  the  fait  cryflal- 

lizinij. 


BUTTER. 


273 


lizing,  fliews  it  is  at  lead  equal  to  the  water  ?  If 
balls  or  prints  of  frefli  butter  were  barreled  up  with 
fuch  a  pickle  in  tight  kegs,  perfeftly  tight  againfl 
air,  would  not  the  butter  keep  a  long  while  ?  And 
would  it  be  without  imbibing  the  brine  ?*  It  how- 
ever is  known  that  the  Hollanders  praiftife  a  dif- 
ferent method,  with  fuccefs.  The  late  Mr.  Hill, 
when  he  reiided  in  Madeira  fometimes  received  from 
Amflerdam  prefents  of  butter  in  very  fmall  tighc 
kegs  filled  in  mafs ;  but  without  any  fait  or  brine. 
Thefe  little  kegs  were,  each  one,  contained  in  a  keg 
of  flrong  brine.  On  opening  the  little  kegs,  the 
butter  was  perfectly  freJJj,  fine  in  colour^  in  taste, 
and  m.  fniell :  but  if  not  foon  ufed,  it  became  infe- 
rior ;  as  indeed  would  frefli  butter  made  on  ihe  fpot, 
on  being  expofed  to  air  and  heat.  This  gentleman 
alfo  received  compliments  in  fafted  herr'.ngs  of  the 
coafl  of  Norway,  which  were  very  fine.  He  ob- 
ferved  that  large  grains  of  fait  abounded  among  the 
herrings ;  and  fuppofcs  they  tend  to  preferve  the 
fifti,  from  the  cool  nature  of  fait; :  but  it  is  proba- 
ble they  were  firfl  (truck  and  cured  with  fine  grain- 
ed fait. 

S  "  Butter 

*  Collins  on  Salt  and  Fillieries,  an.  16S2.  p.  138,  fays  thac 
he  made  fuch  very  jiroug  brins  ;  and  in  May  potted  up  lumps 
o^  frejb  bulter,  bought  ut  market.  Near  the  end  of  Septem- 
ber the  brine  had  eat  through  the  pot ;  and  then  the  butter 
was  put  to  .family  u.e  ;  it  being  fweef,  frejh,  gf^od  and  \\d\ 
Li.'kd.     Tlie  lumps  of  butter  were  kept  funk  in  the  brine. 


2/4  BUTTER. 

"  Butter  is  fent  from  the  Crim  and  the  Kuben  to 
Consianti?7ople,  without  being  falted :  but  it  is  melt- 
ed in  large  copper  pans,  over  a  very  flow  fire,  and 
whatever  rifes  is  fkimmed  off.  It  keeps  two  years, 
fine  tailed.  Wafliing  does  not  fo  effeftually  free 
butter  from  the  curd  and  butter-milk,  as  boiling  or 
melting.  Salting  the  butter  fo  melted  and  iliiramed 
is  the  befl  method  of  prcferving  butter.  Melting 
and  boiling  it  down  with  care,  does  not  difcolour  or 
injure  the  tafle.'*  Nich.  Journ.  II.  p.  ^^6.  But 
it  is  apprehended  that  butter,  Jlowly  melted  and 
kept  hot,  without  boiling,  would  be  injured  by  ver- 
digrife  from  brafs  or  copper  veffels :  if  fo,  stcne  or 
well  tinned  veffels  may  be  preferred. 

Every  motion  ought  to  htjicnv  in  making  butter : 
excepting  perhaps  in  the  aft  of  churning  or  bringing 
the  butter ;  which  may  be  fomewhat  briiker,  for 
fpeedily  effecting  the  purpofe.  Till  the  butter  is 
come,  there  is  nolhing,  no  body^  to  be  healed,  by 
mere  friftion  or  quick  motion.  A  medium  is  to  be 
found.  The  motion  in  churning  may  be,  and  often 
is  too  flow. 

Butter  is  the  better  for  having  never  been  in  wa- 
ttr,  or  at  all  wetted,  even  in  clearing  it  from  bur- 
ter-miik.  If  with  j7oio  motion  for  mixing  it  with 
very  -pure  fine  fait,  and  flowly  preiUng  out  the  but- 
ter-milk, the  butter  be  never  touched  with  water, 

but 


RICE.  275 

but  inflead  of  cooling  it  with  water,  Ice  be  placed 
round  and  under  it,  fo  however  as  not  to  wet  it, 
and  all  this  be  done  rather  on  a  cold  marble  table, 
the  butter  may  be  expcftcd  to  be  greatly  fuperior;, 
hi  colour,  in  clofciiefs,  and  in  Jia'vor.  But  it  ought 
not  to  be  beat,  nor  even  preiTed  or  fqueezed  with  ii 
quick  motion.  Every  motion  ought  to  be  Jlozv,  m 
making  butter.  For  getting  out  the  butter-milk, 
fprinkle  it  with  very  fins  fait,  and  after  gently  mix- 
ing it  in,  let  it  fland  awhile  before  the  fluid  is  to  be 

.       .  .  V 

difcharged.     It  is  faid,  there  is  no  making  fine  pafle, 

but  on  marble  tables ;  which  are  cleaner,  fiueeter 
and  cooler  than  any  wooden  tables ;  and  that  French 
pailry  cooks  ufe  marble.  The  reafons  are  as  flrong 
for  nice  butter  makers  ufing  marble.  A  flab  of 
fmooth  if  not  polifned  marble,  on  a  flout  oaken 
frame,  may  be  flrfl:  made  cold  with  ice ;  and  a 
drawer  ciofe  under  the  flab,  filled  with  ice,  woulJ 
continue  the  cold,  whiltT:  the  butter  is  cleanflng. 

RICE. 

The  farmers  in  Jcrfey,  Pennfylvania,  and  Mary- 
land, have  for  fome  years  had  fuch  dcftru*5lion  in 
their  crops  of  'n-heat,  from  the  Hejftan-fiy,  that  they 
now  increafe  fome  crops  and  look  about  for  other 
articles  of  crop  to  fupply  their  lofl^es  in  wheat. 
Some  increafe  their  maize  culture ;  others  rye. 
Tliey  might  alfo  increafe  cr  introduce  barley,  buck- 
S  %  wlKat^ 


2'j6  RICEr 

wheat,  pulfe  and  hemp  crops.  As  far  north  as 
Sufquebanna  rice  may  be  tried :  perhaps  further. 
But  why  muft  ivheat  be  culti\^ted ;  when  fattening 
numbers  of  li-ve  stock  fcr  7narket  gives  dung,  and 
procures  more  money  than  grain  can ;  and  is  beft 
for  the  ground  and  beil  for  the  pocket !  fome  'wheat, 
and  for  live  ftock  others  of  the  corns  are  to  be  raif- 
ed :  but  never  let  a  paffion  for  wheat  reduce  the 
better  defign  of  cultivating  live  flock  for  the  market, 
rather  than  grain  for  the  market ;  at  leafl  not  until 
our  lands  are  reilored  to  good  heart. 

Sixty  years  ago,  I  experienced  that  rice  grew  to 
perfeftion  in  the  dry  fandy  foil  of  Annapolis ;  and 
a  negro  now  living  with  me,  has  been  ufed  to  grow 
rice  on  the  loamy  foil  of  South  river,  near  Anna- 
polis ;  the  produce  whereof  was  preferred  by  thofc 
who  bought  of  him  by  the  quart,  to  the  beft  im- 
ported rice.  In  17S1,  in  a  clay  loam  on  upland, 
in  Talbot,  Maryland,  I  grew  a  garden  bed  of  it, 
drilled  and  hoed ;  the  produce  v^'hereof  was  good 
in  quality  and  quantity. 

Rice  has  been  cultivated  in  Italy  from  early  in  the 
1 6th  century ;  but  it  will  fucceed  well  either  on  ridi 
or  on  poor  land  ;  it  requiring  a  foil  of  moderate  fer- 
tility. It  alfo  is  faid  in  Italy  that  in  valleys  low  and 
wet,  it  may  be  continued  a  length  of  time  :  in  light- 
er and  drier  foils  it  requires  a  change,  and  is  fown 

everv 


Rice. 


'^n 


every  other  year;  firfl:  r/V^,  then  'wheat.  Sec.  old 
writers  recommend  the  cultivation  of  r/V<f,  for  mul- 
tiplying food  in  countries, 

Mr.  Romans,  in  his  Florida,  fays  rice  will  grow 
in  any  foil  j  though  it  loves  watery  foil  bed :  and 
that  the  reafon  of  letting  water  on  it  is  chiefly  to 
fupprefs  weeds.  The  time  of  planting,  he  fays,  is 
from  the  departure  of  frofl:  till  the  loth  of  June; 
and  that  an  acre  will  yield  i6  to  iSoolb.  manufac- 
tured grain :  a  negro  attending  three  acres  very 
completely. 

If  rice  be  fowed  in  rows,  and  horfehoed  between 
the  rows,  why  may  not  a  labourer  cultivate  as  many 
acres  of  rice  as  of  wheat  in  rows  ?  In  rows  the 
plants  can  be  eafily  and  cffeftually  kept  clean  of 
weeds,  and  the  ground  light  and  mellow.  The 
ftalks  of  rice  whilft  growing  are  fo  clofe  and  hard 
that  the  Helllan-fly  could  make  no  impreflion  on 
them. 

Staverinus  fays  there  are  two  fpecies  of  rice  :  one 
of  which  when  planted,  is  fet  nearly  under  water, 
fo  that  the  tops  juft  appear  above  the  furface,  as 
the  rice  plants  (in  'Java)  would  otherwife  die,  or 
be  deftroyed ;  for  being  too  weak  to  ftand  againfl 
the  wind  by  itfelf,  the  plants  require  the  furround- 
ing  water  to  fupport  them.  The  other  fort,  which 
is  planted  in  the  rainy  feafon,  on  high  ground,  and 

uron 


27S  RICE. 

upon  the  moantains,  receives  the  moirture  it  re» 
quires  folely  from  rains.  Thefe  two  forts,  fays 
his  Tranfiatcr,  are  always  kept  feparate.  The 
upland  rice  bears  the  higheft  price,  being  whiter, 
heartier,  and  better  flavoured  ;  and  has  the  advan- 
tage in  keeping.  The  low  land  or  watered  rice  is 
of  a  watery  fubflance,  increafes  lefs  in  boiling, 
and  keeps  not  fo  well  as  the  upland.  There  are 
varieties  in  the  fpecles,  efpecially  of  the  upland. 
The  fmaller  and  the  v/hiter  kind  is  generally  pre- 
ferred in  India  ;  and  this  upland  kind  is  there  alfo 
called  mountain  rice.  It  was  one  of  the  obje^ls  in 
fending  captain  Bligh  to  the  South  Sea,  to  procure 
feeds  of  this  mountain  rice.  H#  obtained  feme  from 
Timor  ;  which  Vv  ere  fent  to  the  king  of  Great  Bri- 
tain's garden  at  St.  Vincent,  and  other  parts  of  the 
West  Indies  ;  where  it  is  faid  to  be  cultivated  with 
fuccefs, 

Befides  rice,  maize,  and  cotton,  which  will  be  con- 
tinued the  principal  llaple  produce  of  the  lanjjs  in 
Carolina  and  Georgia,  the  climate  there  will  admit 
of  other  prodnfls  which  cannot  be  matured  in  the 
field  hufbandry  of  the  northern  flates ;  iuch  as  will 
give  frelh  and  dried  exotic  fruits,  olives,  olive-oil, 
angola-pinder  or  ground-nut  oil,  (fuperior  to  olive- 
o:!,  from  *n  experiment  I  made  in  1782)  fefamum 
or  benni-oil,  cotton,  &:c.  Cotton  is  an  immenfe  ar- 
ticle !  by  the  climate  forbfdden  to  grow  in  the  north- 
ern 


COUNTRY    HABITATIONS.  279 

ern  ftates.     The  fouthern  pofTefs  this  valuable  staple, 
unrivalled  by  the  northern  ftates. 


COUNTRY     HABITATIONS. 

Security  againft  yfri?  and  houfehreaking  is  peculi- 
arly defcrving  of  attention  in  building  country  ha- 
bitations ;  detached  as  they  are  from  the  immedi- 
ate afliftance  of  neighbours. 

In  the  time  of  the  revolution  war  I  loft  two  houfes 
by  fire,  from  accidents ;  and  living  on  a  navigable 
river,  the  houfe  in  which  I  then  rcfided  was  befet  in 
the  night  by  a  number  of  armed  men.  Their  num- 
bers could  not  be  known,  nor  could  they  be  repelled 
from  within,  otherwife  than  by  firft  opening  the 
door.  They  were  let  in  upon  terms.  The  houfe 
was  badly  conftrufled  for  defence  ;  and  I  always  dif- 
liked  the  common  mode  of  building  with  combuftible 
materials  without  referve,  cfpecially  in  the  roofs. 
The  annexed  drawing  of  a  plan  and  elevation  may 
afford  hints  to  perfons  who  would  build  in  the  coun- 
try. It  is  not  the  intention  to  give  a  defign  to  be 
particularly  followed  ;  but  principles  only,  on  wliich 
others  may  build  to  fuit  themfclves.  The  principles 
on  which  this  plan  is  formed,  afford  many  conve- 
niences and  much  room  j  little  being  wafted  in  ufe- 
lefs  applications  of  the  area,  which  divides,  in  va- 
rious ways,  very  advantageoufly.    The  middle  rooms 

mufl 


28o  COUNTRY    HABITATIONS. 

miift  be  very  comfortabJe  in  fummer,  from  being  de- 
fended on  the  E.  and  W.  fides  from  the  fun  fhining 
on  and  heating  the  walls,  and  being  aired  by  of>en- 
ing  the  S.  and  N.  windows,  and  the  partition  doors 
occafionaJly. 

The  floors  of  bafement  ftories  in  dwelling  houfes, 
are  wholefomer  and  better  vfhai  foHd  and  of  the 
common  earth  naked  or  laid  with  brick,  ftone,  or 
cement,  than  floors  laid  upon  joills  over  cellars  or 
near  the  ground.  Floors  laid  on  joilis  near  the 
ground  or  over  cellars,  confine  a  damp  air  under 
them  long  enough  for  becoming  an  unelailic  dead 
air ;  which  producing  a  mouldinefs  and  fmell  of 
vaults,  is  mixed  with  the  air  of  the  rooms  above, 
ib  as  to  be  even  fmelt  in  fome.  Delicate  people, 
afed  to  drv  warm  houfes  of  the  towns,  feldom  take 
a  cold  on  fleeping  in  log  pens  or  houfes  having 
damp  earihen  jizurs^  when  they  travel  in  the  frontier 
.  of  the  country.* 

Court 

*  In  all  CilrMj  lays  Mr.  Faa  Braam,  the  houfes  are  built 
tipoD  llje  "sjoaiid,  without  aii'f  cellar  under  diem.  The  apart- 
ments are  paved  wuli  flat,  ^uars  bricks  ;  a  thing  very  agree- 
able in  ^■'fira  ^■^atberi  bat  leii  fo  in  fe\"ere  cold  weather,  unlefs 
covered  widi  'Zi'volkxjcpTpieit.  .To  defend  tfcem  from  the  pinch- 
ing cold  cf  vriater,  in  the  northern  parts  of  China j  they  have 
fvhiaTaxteas  jumjixcit  outiide  of  their  houfes,  in  eicavadons 
made  on  pqrpoie  ;  from  Avhesice  tvhes  branch  cS"  in  all  direc- 
tions, vaiier  fhe bricls  ofibefiaort,  and  under  a  kind  of  platforms 
cr  eftrades.  on  vrhich  the  Chinese   ileep.     They  even   p?.li 


pOUNTRY    HABITATIONS.  281 

Court  houfes  and  oilier  flone  or  brick  buildings, 
having  paved  floors,  and  which  are  not  airy,  when 
fhut  up  for  fome  time,  contain  a  foracwhat  flagnant 
unelaftic  damp  air,  -which  is  alfo  unwholefome  :  but 
this  is  not  at  all  the  cafe  of  inhabited,  viucb-frcqucnU 
ed,  or  airy  houfes  with  folid  floors  j  when  the  air 
has  fome  degree  of  current,  and  is  all  alive. 

The  floor  of  a  bafement  ftory  may  be  of  brick  or 
flag-fl:one  upon  the  ground,  raifed  a  foot  above  the 
common  fnrface.  The  fecond  or  beft  ftory  to  have 
its  floor  laid  with  rough  flrong  boards  or  planks, 
only  three  or  four  inches  wide,  nailed  down  acrofs 
ftrong  fliifl'joifts,  and  covered  with  a  thick  bed  of  a 

flrong 

throu-rh  the  walls  which  divide  the  rooms,'  fo  that  the  heat 
diffufed  by  thefe  tubes  produces  In  the  apartments  the  tempe- 
rature defired.  The  f  re  is  hept  up  night  and  day,  in  the  outer 
ftove  or  furnace,  without  the  leaft  danger  to  the  buildings  ; 
becaufe  a  coat  of  bricks  clofely  confines  the  fire .  If  the  apart- 
ments be  fpacious  and  numerous,  an  increafed  number  of 
ftoves  and  tubes  always  infure  the  fame  refult.  It  is  an  Import- 
ant advantage  to  enjoy,  in  cold  weather,  an  agreeable  heat 
difFufed  through  all  the  apartments  of  a  houfe.  It  is  in  thefe 
places  efpecially  where  thefe  outer  ftoves  are  wanting,  and 
where  there  is  a  necelTity  of  having  recourfe  to  brafiers  of  char- 
coal, (a  kind  of  chafing  dlili  or  warmer)  diat  the  value  of 
this  invention  is  the  moft  fenfibly  felt.  He  had  before  fpoke 
of  die  hrajiers  or  metal  velTcls  of  charcoal,  carried  about  for 
communicating  heat  in  the  apartments."  2  ^'""W  Cra.im  on 
China,  pa.  65. 


282  COUNTRY    HABITATIONS. 

flrong  cement,  the  colour  whereof  fhould  yield  to 
utility.*  Carpets  may  cover  the  whole.  The 
wafh-boards  and  furbafe  may  be  of  cut  ftone  or  mar- 
ble. The  floor  of  the  third  llory  to  be  laid  with 
thick  narrow  boards  and  cement  as  the  floor  of  the 
fecond  ftory ;  but  the  wafh-boards  to  be  of  cement 
rounded  off.  Cellars  to  be  under  a  detached  build- 
ing, or  tfnder  the  flaircafe,  or  fome  one  room  of 
the  principal  houfe. 

Wood  is  to  be  avoided  as  much  as  poflible.  The 
door  and  window  frames  may  be  of  flone  or  iron, 
and  the  doors  faced  or  lined  with  iron.f     The  joifts 

and 

*  Pieces  between  the  joilts  fliffen  them  ;  and  prevent  lateral 
■vreaknefs  and  cracking  of  the  cement.  The  excellence  of  the 
Venetian  plqfterjloorst  io  much  admired  for  their  bardnefs  and 
beautiful />c>.V/2),  fays  Mr,  Eaton's  Survey,  p.  231,  depends  en- 
lirelv  on  their  \>€\v.^Jir'jngh  I  eaten.  The  compoiition  is  only 
frejh  Ume  and  fand  (^\^th  pieces  of  marble)  ufed  almojl  dry,  and 
leai  till  qvite  hard,  tlien  ground  even  and  polifhed.  Common 
earthy  as  well  as  lime-moitary  acquires  an  incredible  degree  of 
bardnefs  by  comprcJ-iUHt  if  it  contains  no  more  fnoijiure  than  is 
ueceiTary  to  make  its  parts  unite.  A  )dni.o£  artificial Jlotievazj 
be  made  of  gra^oel  with  3  little  lirne  ftrcngly  prfj^d,  or  beaten 
into  mouldi . 

f  In  lialj,  the  doir  and  -zvindo-iu  cafes  of  dieir  houfes  being  of 
frcejlone  or  marlle,  ihejiocrs  hrici,  and  the  walls  of  the  rooms 
painted,  contribute  greatly  to  the  fecurlty  of  their  houfes 
a^ainft  fire.  Brook  on  Italy,  p.  236.  They  fecure  doors  and 
window-fhutters  agaiull  the  burglar's  faw,  by  iron  inlaid. 


COUNTRY    HABITATIONS.  283 

mid  boards  for  the  platform  roof  and  floors,  alfo  for 
the  flaircafe  If  this  fliould  be  of  wood,  are  to  be 
defended  from  conta^:  of  fire  by  cements.  No  out- 
fide  cornifh  is  reqiiifite  to  a  platform  roof.  Pent- 
houfes  and  corniflies  of  wood,  greatly  facilitate  the 
progrcfs  of  fire  in  confuraing  houfes. 

Many  houfes  of  the  ancient  civilized  world  had, 
and  the  Afiatic  and  African  houfes  on  the  coaft  of 
the  Mediterranean  fea,  ftill  have  platform  roofs. 
The  houfes  in  Algiers  are  fo,  and  of  one  height ; 
fo  that  the  ladies  vifit  from  houfe  to  houfe  and  ftreet 
to  ftreet,  by  walking  on  the  roofs  of  the  houfes.* 
Platform  roofs  are  cheaper  than  common  ridge-roofs, 
(hinglcd  ;  and  are  fafer  againfl  fire  Infide  and  out, 
and  againfl:  the  preflfurc  of  wind.  Moft  houfes 
burnt  in  country  places  take  fire  in  the  roofs  whilfl: 

the 

♦  At  yilc^po,  the  houfes  not  being  burdened  widi  lieavy 
clumfy  roofs,  gives  the  whole  an  air  of  inconceivable  neatnels. 
The  roofs  are  »\\Jliit,  and  terraced  with  a  hard  cement.  From 
each  houfe  there  is  a  communication  witli  the  terrace  above  ; 
by  which  the  Inhabitants  of  whole  ftr.;ets  enjoy  the  fociety  of 
each  other  ;  efpecially  in  cool  plcaf<^.nt  evenings,  without  going 
mto  the  flreets. — During  the  time  of  the  plague,  it  is  particu- 
larly ferviceable  to  the  Chriftian  European  inhabitants  ;  who 
then  Ihut  tlieir  gates,  and  never  go  abroad  ;  but  they  enjoy 
fociety,  air  and  exercife,  from  the  tops  of  their  houfes.  Their 
food  is  then  drawn  up  in  a  baflcet,  and  carefully  fumigated 
and  purified,  before  i;:  is  made  ufc  of.  i  Tayl.  Trav.  p.  225, 
pubhliicd  in  1799. 


;84  COUNTRY    HABITATIONS. 

the  family  is  gone  on  vifits  or  to  church.  Then  it 
is  that  children  or  fervants  take  candles  or  light-wood 
to  rummage  dofets,  cuddies,  and  cock-lofts,  which 
ufually  are  lumbered  with  combuflibles :  or  flakes 
of  burning  foot  fall  on  the  {hingled  roof. 

A  platform  roof  may  be  thus  conftrucled.  Joifls 
12  or  13  inches  deep  at  the  big  end,  are  to  reft  on 
the  middle  wall,  and  from  thence  flope  two-tenths 
of  an  inch  per  foot  to  the  fmaller  end  on  the  exteri- 
or wall.  Their  thicknefs  2^  or  three  inches. 
The  dillance  between  them  12  or  14  inches,  from 
centre  to  centre.  Or  the  joifls  may  be  equally 
deep  from  end  to  end  ;  and  battens  which  flope  are 
to  be  fixed  on  them,  for  forming  the  platform  roof 
with  the  faid  degree  of  flope.  Between  the  joifls, 
at  every  five  or  fix  feet,  fix  to  them  at  right  angles, 
pieces  of  plank,  nearly  the  depth  of  the  joifls. 
Thefe  would  add  to  their  flxength,  as  fo  many 
braces,  preventing  their  weaknefs  laterally.* 
Stout,  rough,  narrow  boards,  3  or  four  inches 
broad,  and  a  full  inch  thick,  are  nailed  down 
acrofs  the  joifls  with  large  nails ;  the  better  if  rag- 
ged. The  fun  is  powerful  in  drawing  nails.  On 
the  boards  lay  a  cement  an  inch  or  two  thick,  whilil 
it  is  hot  in  flacking  burnt  powdered  lime-ftone  one 

part, 

*  The  joifrs  of  the  floors  are  alfo  to  be  ftiffened  or  braced  ; 
for  preventing  their  being  liiaken,  fo  as-to  injure  die  cement 
cf  the  fioors. 


COUNTRY     HABITATIONS.  285 

part,  mixt  with  clean  fand  and  brick-dud  two  parts. 
No  more  at  a  time  is  to  be  flacked  than  what  the 
trowels  can  mix  and  work  up  whilfl  hot.*  When 
the  cement  is  dry,  in  a  hot  funfliine  day,  with  a 
brufli  lay  upon  it  hot  tar  three  or  four  parts,  and 
o^fjh-oil  one  part,  well  mixed  together  over  a  gen- 
tle fire.  This  coat  may  be  repeated.  Forbid  walk- 
ing on  it  for  months  after.  Fifli-oil  corrects  tar  in 
hs  faculty  of  letting  water  through  it ;  and  the  mix- 
ture gives  a  clofe  varniih.  After  this,  lay  upon  the 
cement  tar  and  iifli-oil  boiled  down  together  till  they 
become  half-ituff',\  and  lift  very  coarfe  fand  or  fmall 
pebbles  over  the  whole.  Over  this  lay  more  half- 
stuff,  now  without  oil,  and  more  pebbles  without 
fand.  J 

The 

*  Doffie.  In  ilacking  no  more  water  is  ufed  than  what  will 
well  wet  through  the  heap  of  fand  :  then  to  this  add  and  mis 
up  the  unflacked  burnt  limeftone  in  powder  ;  and  be  careful 
never  to  drown  the  mafs  for  a  moment.  This  fault  would  be 
incurable. 

f  What  in  Maryland  arc  called  inch-planh,  are  loarJs  in 
Pennfylvania.  Tar,  long  boiled,  produces  pilch.  When  tar 
is  but  half  boiled  down,  to  a  medium  Ihicknefs,  between  tar 
and  pitch,  it  is  tlien  called  half-Jluff. 

X  It  may  be  tried  by  making  a  led  of  fand  and  pehlles  dry, 
and  then  levelling  it  pour  on  hot  tar  (or  the  mixture  tar  and 
oil)  barely  to  foak  through  the  bed.  So  it  is,  a  gentlemar. 
of  Carolina  informed  me  he  made  beds  of  a  fandy  foil,  formed 
fomething  higher  than  the  comm.on  level  cf  the  ground,  for 
thralhing  out  hi$  rice  crops.     With  gourds  were  gradually 


285  COUNTRY    HABITATIONS. 

The  method  ufed  for  covering  platform  roofs  in 
New-England,  called  there  compcfition  roofs,  was 
lately  given  me  ;  and  is  as  follov. -;.  *'  Fir":  boil  a 
compoiition  of  far  Siud  pitch,  of  about  bait  made  ftufFj 
and  let  it  boil  well.  Fay  over  the  boards :  lay 
down  the  paper ^  beginning  at  the  eaves  with  a  dou- 
ble courfe ;  always  paying  over  the  firft  before  the 
next  is  laid  on.  Then  lay  the  next  courfe,  about 
one-third  to  the  weather,  the  fame  as  fliingling  ;  and 
lap  each  joint  one  upon  the  other,  about  two  inches  ; 
and  fo  on  till  it  is  all  papered  over.  Then  pay  it  all 
over.  Now  take  gravel,  about  the  iize  of  peas,  or 
a  httle  fmalJcr,  perfectly  clear  of  loam*  Put  the  gra- 
vel on  about  half  an  inch  thick ;  and  having  flood 
two  or  three  days,  expofed  to  the  fun,  in  the  cool  of 
the  day  fweep  what  will  come  off  in  a  heap  :  and  then 
pay  it  all  over  again,  and  put  on  gravel  as  before. 
Then  with  a  wooden  roller  three  feet  long  and  twelve 
inches  diameter,  roll  it  well  in  the  heat  of  the  day  ; 
always  adding  gravel  as  it  may  require.  A  ftrip  of 
lead  half  an  inch  broad  is  then  nailed  in  the  top  of 

the 

poured  upon  one  of  diefe  beds,  many  barrels  of  hot  tar.  After 
a  while  tlie  beds  became  like  ftcr^e.  Above  fifty  years  ago,  I 
was  fbewn  the  kitchen  of  a  Captain  Lux  of  Baltimore.  It  was 
a  houfe  which  had  been  ufed  for  ftonng  barrels  of  tar.  The 
floor  was  now  a  compoiition  of  tar  and  eartli,  and  appeared 
like  ftone.  I  chiefly  noticed  the  fire  place,  which  alfo  was  a 
compofition  of  tar  and  earth,  appearir.g  like  flone,  and  was 
quite  incombuftible.  So  on  wharves  are  feen  c/^fpots,  where 
tar  had  been  fpilt,  which  cannot  be  burnt. 


COUNTRY     HABITATIONS.  287 

the  eaves  over  all,  to  keep  the  wind  fromralfing  the 
paper.  The  compofition  is  always  to  be  put  on 
boilinsr.  The  roof  to  have  about  two  inches  in  three 
feet  more  or  lefs.  The  joifts  are  not  to  be  more 
than  18  or  20  inches  from  centre  to  centre.  The 
boards  are  to  be  well  jointed,  and  the  joints  well 
broke.  When  they  are  nailed  down,  dub  off  the 
joints  fair  and  fmooth.'* 

Mr.  Volney,  in  his  Syria,  fays  that  that  people 
make  ufe  of  a  cement  thus :  "  whiifl:  the  lime  is 
boiling  (^according  to  the  tranllation— ^^r/'/w^  I  pre- 
fumc)  they  mix  with  it  one-third  part  of  fand,  and 
another  of  aflies  and  pounded  brick-dufl.  With  fuch 
a  compofition  they  form  wells,  ciflerns  and  vaults, 
which  water  cannot  pafs  through."  I  am  informed 
this  has  been  tried,  from  Mr.  VoIney*s  book,  in  the 
weflern  country  ;  and  that  it  anfwers  on  a  platform 
roof  there. 

Mr.  Latrobe  permits  me  to  give  here  the  compo- 
fition of  a  cement  ufed  by  him,  and  the  manner  of 
applying  it  to  platform  roofs.  "  The  floor  mud  rife 
about  two  or  three  inches  in  ten  feet  (two  or  three 
tenths  of  an  inch  in  a  foot.)  Firfl:,  lay  a  floor  upon 
t\itraften,*  of  narrow  well  feafoned  plank  cut  into' 

fiip<; 

*  On  fuch  a  flat  roof  are  rafters  requifite  or  not.'  Joill? 
■without  rafters  may  have  the  proper yZ?/»<'  ;  v  itliout  the  aid  of 
rafters  for  thai  purpofc.     But  are  not  rafters  better  for  rccciv- 

\ 


28S  COUNTRY    HABITATIONS. 

flips  not  wider  than  four  inches,  idly.  Lay  dowa 
upon  the  floor  with  voi/ifig  far,  a  coat  o^ Jhe at hing  pa- 
per, fuch  as  is  ufed  for  Iheathing  Ihips.  3d]y.  One 
bufliel  pounded  chalk,  or  unjlackedlime  ox  lime  flacked 
in  the  air,  or  o'i  loater  Jlackcd  lime  dried  and  pounded 
very  fine.  Two  bufliels  clean  coarje  fand,  and  as 
much  tar  as  is  neceiTary  to  reduce  it  to  a  fubflance 
that  w  ill  fpread  toughly  \L'he7i  hot.  The  tar  mufh  be 
boiled  and  the  materials  gradually  mixed  with  them 
tilt  they  are  in  a  proper  ilate  to  lay  on  the  paper. 
The  ftratum  may  be  three  quarters  of  an  inch  thick. 
Skreen  gravel,  fo  that  the  largeil  particles  may  be  as 
big  as  large  fizcd  peas,  and  none  much  lefs  than 
fwan  fhot.  Take  a  i^ery  hot  day,  when  the  compoil- 
tion  is  fomewhat  fofiened  by  the  heat  of  the  fun,  and 
with  a  garden  roller,  roll  in  as  much  of  this  gravel 
as  it  will  take.     The  floor  will  then  be  a  beautiful 

pavement, 

ino^  the  unavoidable  great  weight  or  prefTure  of  fnow  and  ice  ? 
They  bear  up  againft  the  preihire,  in  lome  meafare  as  an  arch 
would  :  and  the  feet  of  the  rafters  place  it  all  directly  on  the 
vrall.  Not  fo  of  joifts  receiving  the  vreight. — Lengthy  ftraight 
pieces  of  timber  lying  horizontally,  fwag  with  their  own 
weight  when  they  reft  with  each  end  on  a  wall :  and  the  great 
preflure  of  weight  bearing  on  them  from  end  to  end  or  wall  to 
wall,  is  increafed  in  proportion  to  their  length  or  diftance 
from  the  wall.  Rafters  are  certainly  requifite  where  the  dif- 
tance is  confiderable  and  the  beft  fecuiity  is  fought.  They 
ought  not  to  be  avoided  for  tlie  fake  of  fo  little  coft  as  they 
would  occafion.  Indeed,  v.-ith  rafLcrs,  tlie  joifts  may  be  fur- 
ther apirt,  or  a  little  fmaller.. 


COUNTRY    HABITATIONS.  289 

pavement,  and  may  be  worked  in  mofaick.  This 
covering  is  fo  light,  that  very  little  timber  is  required 
in  the  roof." 

A  refifter  of  water  for  fome  purpofes,  is  equal 
parts  of  rofin,  turpentine  and  bees-'wax  ;  which  ftands 
any  heat  not  more  than  140  degrees  of  Farenheit. 
Melt  the  ingredients  together  in  a  pot.  When  all 
the  volatile  oil,  which  caufes  the  mixture  to  rife  is 
diiTipated,  apply  it  hot  with  a  bruili.  But  it  wants 
body  for  a  roof.     Add  ochre. 

In  travelling  from  Philadelphia  to  Reading  there 
is  much  of  an  earth  having  the  caft  of  red  iron-ore, 
and  it  occurred  that  it  might  be  the  fame  as  the  re- 
fifter  of  water  called  Pozzolani :  but  1  was  not  well 
enough  to  examine  or  view  it  oiherwife  than  as  I 
palled  on.     A  facftitious  Pozzolani  has  been  produc- 
ed ;  which  is  faid  to  anfwer  the  purpofes  of  what  is 
natural :  and  that  it  is  cheap,  and  keeps  well.     In 
one  hundred  parts  it  contains  43  oifdkc,  2,5  of  ircn, 
1 7  of  alu/Uy  and  a  little  of  manganefe.    Thofe  compo- 
nent'parts  of  Pozzolani,  are  found  in  the  earths  of 
America.     When  earth  or  clay  on  the  fide  of  a  bank 
looks  froiled  or  hoary,   as  a  fait  exuded  from  the 
ground,  if  tafted,  it  fometimes  proves  to  be  an  alu- 
minous fubllancc,  which  I  have  experienced  on  ihe 
banks  of  the  Chefapeak. 

T  Objcflions 


29*3  COUNTRY    HABITATIONS. 

Obje£l:ions  readily  occur  to  new  projects ;  and  it 
is  right  that  they  fliould  be  well  weighed  and  corifi- 
dered.  It  is  faid  plarform-roofs  may  anfwer  in  fou- 
thern  climates ;  but  that  in  our  more  northern  coun- 
try, the  weight  of  fnow  would  be  too  great  to  be 
borne.  This  objeftion  has  the  lefs  force  with  me, 
who  have  had  fome  experience  on  this  head.  I  co- 
vered a  houfe,  thirty-fix  feet  fquare,  with  a  flat  roof 
which  floped  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  to  a  foot. 
The  joifis  of  poplar  were  two  feet  apart ;  nine  inches 
deep  at  the  upper  end  (the  ridge  of  the  roof  j  and 
about  fix  and  a  half  inches  at  the  fmall  end,  where 
they  refted  on  a  wall.  From  the  ridge  to  this  wall 
was  ten  feet,  and  the  joifts  from  thence  continued 
tapering  further  eight  feet,  where  they  refted  on  a 
plate  fupported  by  brick  pillars.  Pine  fawed  laths, 
inch  thick,  were  nailed  acrofs  the  joifls.  Common 
weak  oyfter-fhell  mortar,  from  old  Indian  colle^ions 
of  fhells,  was  laid  on  the  laths,  three-fourths  of  an 
inch  thick.  Tiles  fix  quarters  of  an  inch  thick  were 
bedded  in  the  mortar.  The  joints  were  filled  with 
tar  and  fand  ;  and  the  tiles  and  joints  were  covered 
and  filled  v^'ith  half- fluff,  on  which  fand  was  fire  wed 
thick  and  rolled.  A  gufl  of  wind  carried  off  mofl 
of  the  fand.  Then  again  half-fluff  and  fheathing  pa- 
per were  laid  on ;  and  upon  the  paper  half-fluff, 
fand  and  pebbles.  Gufls  of  wind  blew  mofl  of  the 
paper  off;  and  rain  paffed  eafily  through.  The  pa- 
per remained  on  the  roof  over  only  one  of  the  rooms ; 

which 


COUNTRY    HABITATIONS.  29I 

which  was  tight,  excepting  in  one  place,  where  rains 
poured  through,  tillafingle  thin  coat  o(  tar  andfijh- 
oil^  laid  on  hot  with  a  hair  brulh,  totally  llopt  the 
leak.  This  roof  bore  the  fnows  of  near  twenty  win- 
ters, in  Maryland,  w  ithout  the  leafl  attempt  made  to 
{hovel  off  the  fnow,  Mr.  Latrobc*s  cement  feeras 
the  bell.     It  is  tough,  and  cannot  crack. 

The  leaking  in  this  experiment  was  the  more  ex- 
ceflive,  from  the  mortar  being  made  of  rotten  fliells ; 
which  made  an  imperfect  cement :  and  m.oreover,  too 
much  was  expefted  from  tar  and  pitch,  as  reliilers 
of  water ;  when  in  fact  they  let  it  through  rapidly  j 
until  mixed  with  filli-oil,  which  proved  to  be  a  per- 
fe<5l  corrector  :  neither  v/as  the  paper  properly  iixed  ; 
for  it  could  not  be  nailed  down.  Though  the  joifls 
were  of  a  brittle  wood,  flender  and  diflant  from  each 
other,  yet  the  fpan  from  wall  to  wall  was  but  about 
nine  feet. 

In  the  annexed  plan  is  a  main  partition  wall,  acrofs 

where  the  chimney  is,  from  whence  the  joiils  extend 

2 1  feet  to  the  exterior  wall.*     The  weight  of  extra- 

T  2  ordinary 

*  In  laying  down  joiils,  if  s  fmall  chip  or  cleat  be  naikJ 
on,  near  their  ends,  it  would  greatly  ftrengthen  the  walls  ;  ia 
liulding  them  as  a  tie,  and  preyenting  their  inclining  either 
inv.urd  or  outward.  Short  fpurs  of  fcantling  may  be  fised  to 
tlie  fide  of  the  joiils  nsxt  the  wall,  and  extend  into  the  wall  with 
chips  near  their  ends,  for  holding  the  lid 2  walls. 


292  COUNTRY    HABITATIONS, 

ordinary  quantities  of  fnow  and  fleet  often  repeated 
in  the  coiirfe  of  a  winter,  is  to  be  guarded  againft. 
If  there  was  no  chance  of  omilTion  to  fliovel  off  the 
fnow  every  time  it  fliould  fall,  lefs  ftrength  would  be 
requifite :  but  there  probably  would  be  negleft  in 
this ;  or  the  houfc  might  happen  to  be  uninhabited 
during  fome  winter  or  other  ;  I  would  therefore  have 
the  joifts  ftrong  and  numerous,  and  the  joifts  imrae- 
diatelj'  below  thofe  of  the  roof,  fliould  be  made  to 
bear  fome  portion  of  the  weight,  by  planks  between 
the  lower  and  upper  joifl:s ;  which  are  to  be  two  or 
three  feet  apart,  the  depth  of  the  fpace  allowed  for 
the  external  air  to  pafs  through  and  carry  heat  from 
under  the  platform  roof,  fo  as  to  cool  tjie  work  and 
chambers,  and  admit  a  perfon  to  go  between  the  plat- 
form and  ceiling  and  examine  defers. 

Another  objection  is,  that  fudden  changes  of  the 
weather  between  great  heats  and  torrents  of  cool  rain, 
are  very  trying.  But  it  is  pretty  certain  that  atten- 
tion in  the  choice  of  the  materials  and  laying  on  the 
covering  will  be  effe£lual  in  preventing  fuch  injuries ; 
cfpecially  when  relieved  from  much  heat  by  the  vent 
between  platform  and  ceiling. 

The  fl:air  cafes  in  the  above  defign  may  be  befl:  In 
tlie  corner  rooms,  or  the  pafl'ages.  To  make  thefe 
corner  rooms  otherwife  than  fquarc,  would  give  the 
houfe  the  appearance  of  aii  old  caflle,  if  rounded, 

and 


COUNTRY    HABITATIONS.  ^93 

and  of  a  modern  fortrefs  if  the  extreme  angles  were 
made  at  all  acute  ;  which  is  to  be  avoided.  It  is  in 
all  things  to  fupport  the  character  of  a  houfe,  a  mere 
habitation.  Wood  on  (lair  cafes  may  be  coated  over 
with  a  cement.* 

Preferving  the  principles,  and  the  form  ;  the  fize 
will  be  according  to  the  abihty  and  difcreet  views  of 
the  proprietor.     In  the  annexed  plan,  the 

Fiet.  Fiit. 
2  Paflages  are  in  the  clear  21  by  9,^  each  200,  both  400 
4  Rooms,  the  corners  iz  hj  12  144  576 

2  Ditto,         .  .         20  by  21  420  840 


Whole  area  1816 

The  drawing  is  of  an  elevation  and  plan  fronting 
fouth.  The  entrance  is  at  either  of  the  fides,  eaft 
or  wcfl :  and  thefe  fides  need  but  little  of  window 
light.  There  are  obje(5lions  to  balconies  :  but  if  de- 
fired,  the  eafl:  and  weft  fides  of  the  houfe  may  be 
preferred,  for  giving  (hade ;  in  the  morning  on  the 
weft,  and  in  the  evening  on  the  eaft.  The  width 
may  be  2^^  feet  of  the  rccefs,  and  5^  projecting  ; 
making  8  feet  the  width  of  the  balcony. 

Between 

■*  Nothing  is  faid  of  any  ufe  of  tlie /ani/,  formed  by  the  re- 
cefles  of  the  exterior  walls  ;  though  holes  in  them  would  effed 
feme  good  in  airing  tlie  rooms.  Among  a  civilized  people, 
and  in  a  country  of  laiusy  there  ought  to  be  ao  occafion  for  any 
extraordinafy  application  of  them. 


294  COUNTRY    HABITATIONS. 

Between  the  ceiling  of  the  uppermoft  (lory  and  the 
platform  roof,  is  to  be  a  clear  fpace  of  two  or  three 
feet  in  depth,  with  holes  through  the  oppofire  walls. 
The  hot  air  will  thus  be  carried  olf  from  the  under 
parr  of  che  platform,  and  there  will  be  a  fpace  for 
examining  the  ftate  of  it.  The  air  holes  in  the  walls 
may  be  8  or  lo  inches  diameter,  with  wire  or  twine 
lattices  well  foakcd  in  the  tar  and  oil  compofition 
(page  285J,  for  excluding  birds;  and  during  the 
winter,  infide  clofe  Ihutters  are  to  exclude  fnow. 

A  baluftrade  of  plain  banniflers  fquaring  to  2  by 
3  inches,  thin  fide  outward,  and  leaving  clear  inter- 
vals of  6  or  7  inches,  will  admit  of  fnow  being  more 
freely  blown  off  as  it  falls :  otherwife  a  handfome 
clofe  parapet  of  wall,  would  be  preferable.  Turned 
banniders  would  not  be  {o  limply  neat,  nor  admit  of 
{0  much  freedom  to  the  fnow  being  blown  off,  as 
thefe  plain  bannifters.  Rope-netting  or  lattice  would 
alfo  admit  of  fnovr  accumulating  on  the  diagonal  ropes 
and  their  angles. 

Height:  Bafemfnt  elevation  of  the  walls  9  +  1  =  10  feet. 
Second  llory,  '.  12  +  1  =  13 

Third  ftory,         .  .  9  +  1  =  10 

Vent  fpace,  .  .         2+1=3 

Whole  height  36 

In  proportion  as  the  walls  are  hi^b,  they  fliould  be 
thick  and  ftrong.     The  ihree-siory  houfe  would  have 

-.6 


COUNTRY    HABITATIONS.  295 

;i^6  feet  of  wall  above  ground.  A  two-story,  26  feet, 
and  a  one-story  houfe  1 5  feet.  So  that  if  one  (lory 
requires  a  wall  i  brick  thick,  two  llories  may  have 
the  bafement  i^,  and  three  ftories  2  bricks  thick  :  or 
fay  1^,  2,  2 1  bricks  thick,  the  bafement  or  firil  (lo- 
ries. The  foundation  wall  fliould  be  three  feet  in 
the  ground,  for  gaining  firmnefs  and  to  be  out  of  the 
reach  of  fevere  froft. 

It  may  be  fufficient  for  fome  families,  and  bell;  fuit 
their  purpofes  to  have  but  one  or  two  flories  of  rooms. 
The  lower  the  walls  the  ftronger.  It  would  be  no 
great  tafk  to  force  water  up,  every  evening  in  fum- 
mer,  for  cooling  the  roof  and  other  purpofes.  At 
Algiers,  much  of  the  women's  work  is  done  on  the 
roof,  where  water  is  always  at  hand.  They  cfpe- 
cially  wafli  and  dry  their  linen  there.  In  Spain  they 
have  their  cloacas  on  the  platform  roof;  where  alfo 
are  two  ciflerns  of  water:  one  for  the  ufe  of  the  cook, 
the  other  for  more  common  purpofes,  wailiing,  ^'c* 
From  this  the  pipes  of  the  cloacas  are  fluiced.  At 
Cadiz,  water  is  received  into  the  ciflerns  on  the  tops 
of  the  houfes,  from  refervoirs  or  heads  of  water  on 
the  hills  out  of  the  town.  Water  might  be  raifed 
to  a  head  at  the  top  of  Mr.  Morris's  quarry  hill,  on 

the 

*  In  Oporto  die  kitchens  are  ufually  in  the  attic  story.  Mur- 
phy's Trav.  So  it  is  faid,  the  kitchens  are  on  the  tops  of 
many  houfes  in  Spain  :  eitlier  on  the  platform  roof;  or  more 
probably  in  the  attic  (lories. 


296  COUNTRY    HABITATIONS, 

the  Schuylkill,  for  fupplying  referroirs  on  the  tops  of 
the  houfes  in  Philadelphia.*  Confult  ingenious  men. 
ITie  tide  falling  eight  feet ;  and  running  2^ ^ths  miles 
in  an  hour,  at  leall  equal  to  the  walking  of  horfes  in 
mil'-work,  could  not  works  be  fo  conftruftcd  that  the 
impetus  of  the  water  of  that  river  {hou!d  move  a 
wheel  (I  think  a  horizontal  one)  which  would  force 
the  water  wanted  up  to  a  refervoir,  on  the  top  of  that 
hill?  A  horizontal  wheel  under  water  would  for 
ever  turn  one  and  the  fame  war,  whether  the  water 
runs  ebbing  or  flowing  ;  as  near  thirty  years  ago  I 
exoerieaced  in  a  model.f 

The  :\- :T:'7;/  2iAfecGnd  sHries  may  be  divided  ac- 
cording to  the  views  of  the  builder,  rather  than  by  the 
annexed  plan ;  pi.  IV.  The  third  story  having  the 
four  fqnare  rooms,  at  the  comers  of  the  plan,  thrown 
into  dofets  about  2  J^ths  feet  deep,  will  admit  of  the 
thin  partition  as  above  laid  down,  to  be  omitted  ; 
and)  then  the  wkole_  area  (clear  of  the  clofets  pro- 
pofed)  will  divide  into  four  roomy  bed-chambers. 

The 

*  With  a.  quadrsnt  level,  I  find  diat  the  upper  part  of  die 
brick  psdeilal  of  Chiift  church  ft^ple,  is  nearly  level  with  the 
top  of  d:is  hill :  the  obferration  taken  at  a  ftadon  diftant  froia 
both  objeSs :  about  two  miles  from  the  fteeple. 

•*  J  From  crater  forced  up  throng^  pipes,  erenr  hoiife  m'ght 
hs^cfarjiHj  bath  near  the  bed-rooms,  which  wcjld  be  an  iro- 
pcifant  improTement  fpr  promoting  the  health  and  comfort 
of  families.     Ypa  now  rife  from  bed  and  waflj  face  and  hands 


COUNTRY    HABITATIONS.  297 

The  middle  wall  croifing  the  paffages  and  divid- 
ing the  large  rooms,  will  bear  mofl:  of  the  weight 

on 

—your  tip  ends.  Wliy  not  rife  and  plunge  into  your  wafh-ba- 
fon — a  bath  adjacent  to  your  bedcliamber,  inftead  of  ufing  a 
gallon  vefiel  of  water,  only  for  hands  and  face  ?  Every  family 
in  this  climate  ought  to  have  its  iath  ;  and  proper  bathing 
places  fliould  be  provided  for  fervants  alfo. 

Bathing  moiftens,  foaks,  waflies,  fupples  and  refrefhes  the 
whole  body.  When  the  water  is  tep'id,  bathing  is  always  fafe, 
cleaning  and  rcfrefhing  ;  when  coU,  or  made  more  than  blood 
'warpit  it  is  wholefome  or  not  according  to  the  ftate  of  health  ; 
but  it  is  very  beneficial  in  many  cafes,  when  well  advifed  to 
ufe  the  one  or  the  other. 

"  Among  the  rules  for  preferving  cleanlinefs  and  a  found 
"  ilate  of  the  fkin,  an  important  one  is  to  bathe  once  a  nueek  the 
*'  nuhole  year  throughy  in  tepid  water :  and  it  is  wilhed  (fays 
"  Mr.  H'lf dandy  in  Germany)  that  puhlic  baths  were  again 
"  ereded.  that  poor  people  might  enjoy  this  benefit  and  be 
"  rendered  ftrong  and  found  ;  as  was  the  cafe  in  former  centu- 
"  ries  ;  when  on  every  Sunday  evening,  people  went  in  pro- 
"  ceflion  through  the  ftreets,  beating  on  bafons,  to  remind  the 
"  poorer  claiTes  of  batliing :  and  people  who  labored  at  dirty 
"  work,  waflied  oflF  in  the  bath  the  dirt  which,  undifturbed, 
"  would  have  adhered  to  them  probably  their  whole  lives." 
2.  Huf eland. 

In  Itah',  ladies  fomeiimes  nfe  the  bath  before  they  drefs ; 
and  therefore  are  capable  of  bearing  the  fummer's  heat; 
and  are  better  prepared  forbearing  the  change  of  air  in  their 
enfuing  winter.  Their  chambcr-haths  are  vtrj  convenient. —  In 
iliape  fomething  like  a  cradle  without  a  head,  they  have  a 


29B  COUNTRY     HABITATIONS. 

on  the  roof,  and  mull  therefore  be  particularly 
firoDg.  The  joills  of  the  platform  run  ixom  this 
wall  north  and  loi:th  to  the  exterior  walls. 

The 

handle  at  each  end,  and  ftand  on  four  fbort  legs,  hij;h  enough 
to  admit  a  chafing-difh  under  them  ;  lb  that  they  can  have  a 
tepid  or  hot  bath  whenever  thev  pleaft.  It  is  made  of  copper 
well  tinned  ^s^thir: ;  and  being  thin  and  portable,  is  cafilv  car- 
ried from  room  to  room.  When  ufed  for  medical  purpoles, 
the  patient  is  eafiiy  laid  in  it-  Brooh  on  Ital^,  p.  199.  In 
feme  cafes  water  is  xti^efab  at  tbefta.  Thoie  who  uie  eiui^r 
tepid  or  hot  baths,  mtdkaUxy  pat  vinegar,  brimilone,  iron 
filings,  and  fometimes  aromatic  herbs  in  the  \rater.  The^^Eo^ 
hmth  is  inconvenient  for  fick  penbns  in  getting  out  of  it. 

In  no  fituations  are  lathi  more  ne ccfTary  than  in  pnfoiu. 
Wherever  men  are  kept  together  in  numbers,  they  are  liable 
to  contagious  fevers  brealdng  oat  amongic  them.  It  is  fo  even 
Tfhen  they  are  lefs  conaned  than  in  priibas.  "  In  1 792  a  con- 
•*  tagious  fever  broke  out  in  a  regiment  of  foldiers  quartered 
«*  at  Liverpool,  Ecglasd,  and  increafed  rapidly  againil  all 
•*  oppofition,  till  by  advice  of  the  jAyfician  the  regiment  was 
**  drawn  up,  and  the  men  fevemUy  examined  by  him  ;  when 
*•  1 7  were  found  to  have  the  morbid  fymptoms ;  and  being- 
•*  drawn  out,  were  ftripped  naked  in  the  fick  houfe,  and  had 
**  a  fail  bucket  of  cclJ  water  thrown  fuddenly  on  them,  feve- 
**  rally ;  which  was  repeated  CEce  or  twice  a  day,  and  cured 
•*  them  in  a  few  days .  The  whole  regiment  then  bathed  daily 
"  :a  the  fea,  (the  water  whereof  contained  one  thirty-fecond 
*•  part  of  fait.)  In  two  weeks  this  praSice,  daily  repeated,  to- 
*•'  tally  eilinguiiaed  the  ccz.tagicn  and  fever."  This  cold 
bath  (tbcfca  *si2:'r)  was  58  to  60®  of  Farenheit*s  fcale.  When 
the  bath  bof  fjrefii  water,  add  one  part  of  ialt  to  33  of  water. 


COUNTRY    HABITATIONS.  299 

The  receffes  of  the  walls  are  fliallow  as  may  be ; 
i^  foot  clear  of  wall  will  do.  If  deep,  they  re- 
tain or  concentrate  heat,  and  harbour  muJketoes. 

If  the  corner  rooms  be   10  feet  fq.  or  ico  X4  =  4-°  f^^^ 
The  middle  rooms  18  by  20  ft.  fq.  or  360  X  2z=/20 
The  palf^ges  7tV  by  25,  or   187  X  2  =  374 

Whole  area  ^494 

Coiifl:ru(5lion  of  chimnies  to  the  belt  advantage  is 
very  important ;  yet,  till  lately,  the  principles  have 

been 

The  like  practice  is  applicable  in  hofpUah  and  mamifador'tes  as 
well  as  in  prifons. 

Befides  the  ufefulnefs  of  baths  in  cafes  of  ficknefs  in  prifonsy 
SiC.  they  would  at  all  times  be  refrefhing,  and  tend  to  prevent 
the  occurrence  of  dilbrders.  At  leaft  the  ufe  of  them  would 
be  ckanfmg  and  comfortable  ;  and  for  thefe  purpofes  the  Ger- 
mans formerly  ufed  bathing  amongll  the  common  people  of 
towns,  as  above  ;  and  in  great  mealure  fuch  bathing  by  fud- 
den  effufion  or  immerfion,  would  fupply  the  want  of  cxcni/e, 
,  by  the  powerful  and  briflc  aftion  into  which  the  mufcles,  fibres 
and  nerves,  would  be  thrown. 

"  CleanUnefs,  fays  Hajfar  Imtnay  is  of  the  greateft  importance 
to  all  animal  life.  All  animals  are  fubjecl  to  its  laws.  The 
means  of  it  arc  always  prefeut.  The  limpid  ilream  and  the 
briny  wave  are  appointed  to  this  purpofe.  They  purify  the 
furface,  and  brace  and  flrengthen  tlie  nerves  and  fibres  of  ani- 
mals. The  Deftinies  have  thus  profcribed  najl'tnefs,  which  is 
the  fource  of  many  difeafes  ;  and  is  loathfome  and  deteftaitls 
to  human  nature,  and  to  moft  animals.'* 


300  COUNTRY    HABITATIONS. 

been  but  little  ur.derftood.  Mr.  Peak,  of  the  Mu- 
ieum  in  Philadelphia,  has  given  me  feme  account  of 
the  fine  efiefts  of  his  patent  improvements,  and  fays, 
that  "  fire-places  which  were  ufed  to  fmoke,  on  his 
"  principles  are  cured  of  fmokicg ;  and  fuch  entire 
"  command  is  had  of  the  draught  of  air,  that  with 
"  but  little  of  attention  to  the  ftate  of  the  fire,  as 
"  to  its  fc'jming  clear  or  not,  by  moving  the  Aiding 
*'  mantle  downward  for  increafing  the  draught,  then 
**  returning  it  for  letting  the  heat  into  the  room, 
*'  and  clofing  the  valve  or  regifter  in  the  throat  of 
"  the  chimney,  jufli  far  enough  for  carrying  off  the 
"  watery  particles  of  the  fuel,  only  a  fmall  portion 
"  of  the  heat  is  fuffered  to  efcape  up  the  chimney : 
*•  confcquentiy  with  verj'  little  confumption  of  fuel, 
**  even  large  rooms  may  be  kept  comfortable  in  the 
"  coldeft  feafons,  as  during  the  laft  winter  he  con- 
*'  tinually  experienced ;  and  the  houfe  is  perfectly 
*'  fecure  from  any  fire  left  iathe  fire-place  at  night." 
1  have  in  the  late  winter  feen  one  of  Mj-.  Peale's 
fire-places  in  its  improved  ftate,  where  the  room 
was  uncommcrJy  large,  26  by  25  feet  fquare  and 
15  feet  high.  On  inquiry,  it  was  afcerrained  to 
me  that  during  the  winter  only  fmall  fires  were  kept 
burning  from  the  morning  about  feven  o'clock  till 
nine  or  ten  at  night,  when  it  was  let  go  dovvn,  and 
the  mantle  of  the  fire  place,  and  the  valve  or  regi- 
flcr  of  the  chimney  fine  were  clofed,  or  very  near- 
ij,  and  the  family  left  the  room  to  go  to  bed  ;  that 

it 


COUNTRY     HABITATIONS.  3OI 

it  preferved  a  warmth,  not  lefs  than  48  of  Faren- 
heit,  in  the  room  till  the  fire  was  renewed  next 
morning  ;  and  this  was  the  cafe  in  the  coldefl  nights, 
when  out  of  doors  the  thermometer  was  at  10  de- 
grees.    That  in  the  day  the  heat  was  fteadily  kept 
at  60  degrees.     There  is,  next  door  to  mine,  a  fire- 
place very  noted  for  fmoking.     After  many  vain  at- 
tempts to  cure  it,  it  was  clofed  up  with  brick-work, 
plaiftered  over,  and  fo  remained  till  lately,  when 
Mr.  Peale  direfted  his  improvements  to  be  applied 
to  it.     Now  it  is  perfectly  free  from  fmoking  in  the 
very  word  of  winds  and  weather.     What  further 
proved  to  me  the  due  portion  of  heat  having  been 
fteadily  preferved  in  Mr.  Peak's  above  room,  dur- 
ing the  winter,  was  the  high  perfection  in  which, 
in  March,  I  faw  in  it  a  colle£lion  of  green  houfe- 
plants,  oranges,  &c.  that  had  flood  there  the  win- 
ter through.     The  room  had  two  windows  fronting 
wefterly,  and  two  foutherly,  and  I  never  faw  green 
houfe-plants  more  perfe<5lly  kept. 

CELLARS  AND  APERTURES  ix  HOUSES, 

It  is  a  general  practice  in  America,  in  building 
habitations,  to  have  many  windows ;  and  to  leave 
them  open  in  hot  ivcatbcr  for  letting  in  the  common 
air.  When  in  fuch  weather  there  happens  to  be  a 
breeze,  fome  benefit  is  received  by  the  few  perfons 
who  can  fit  clofe  to  the  window.     But  as  the  air 

from 


302  COUNTRY    HABITATIONS. 

from  without  when  the  fun  (hines,  is  full  20  degrees 
hotter  than  within  doors,  the  air  looked  for  brings 
with  it  that  increafe  of  actual  heat :  yet  concentrat- 
ed in  a  llream  as  it  rufhes  through  the  windows  it 
relieves  perfons  on  whom  it  flrlkes,  with  fcnfations 
of  coolnefs.  But  if  the  houfe  is  Jhut  up  during  the 
hot  fun-ftiining  part  of  the  day,  the  family  feels 
more  coolnefs  and  comfort  than  when  the  windows 
are  open  for  letting  in  the  wind  which  is  actually 
hot — and  how  is  it  in  the  time  of  a  calm  ?  The  hav- 
ing only  a  fciv  apertures^  in  habitations^  is  advan- 
tageous both  against  cold  and  heat. 

Cellar  windows  are  improperly  left  open  during 
the  whole  time  of  the  hot  feafon,  for  letting  in  cool 
air :  when  in  fa£l  the  air  let  in  is  heated  above  20 
degrees  more  than  the  nearly  quiefcent  air  in  the 
cellar. 

I 

The  following  attentions  would  be  preferable  to 
the  common  pra<51:ice.  Shut  up  the  cellar  during  the 
hot  feafon,  from  May  till  0£i:ober,  night  and  day  : 
or  open  the  windows  after  the  fetting  of  the  fun, 
and  clofe  them  by  fun  rife,  if  it  be  a  wet  cellar. 
From  the  firft  of  Oftober  the  windows  may  be  left 
open,  day  and  night,  till  the  end  of  November,  or 
threatening  of  a  fpell  of  freezing  weather:  then 
again  clofe  them,  till  about  the  20th  of  March  or 
early  in  April  j  when  the  windows  are  left  open, 

till 


COUNTRY     HABITATIONS.  303 

till  May,  as  above.  Yet,  during  winter,  a  few 
fmail  air  holes  may  be  left  open  immediately  under 
the  joifts  of  the  lirfl:  floor,  for  preferving  fome  de- 
gree of  motion,  as  the  life  of  air,  and  for  a  paiTage 
to  mufty  vapours  of  the  cellar.  The  lefs  the  cellar, 
under  habitations,  the  more  healthful  the  family. 
For  a  few  purpofes  a  fmail  cellar  may  be  here.  For 
other  pul-pofes  have  them  under  fome  detached 
building.* 

ICE 

*  In  live  fucceffive  days  of  June  and  July,  I  found  the 
medium  mid-day  heat  of  clear  days  Avas  aii"  more  out  of 
doors,  ten  yards  north  of  my  houfe  and  5  feet  above  the 
ground,  than  in  a  recefs  in  a  N.  and  S.  paflage  running 
through  the  houfe.  When  cloudy,  the  heat  out  of  doors,  as 
above,  was  only  3  to  54°  more  than  in  the  paiTage.  But, 
thefe  experiments  having  been  made  in  a  thick  built  town, 
are  lefs  fatisfa<5lory  than  if  they  had  been  of  heat  in  die  coun- 
try, where  its  effeds  are  much  more  estenfively  felt,  by  huf- 
bandmen,  labourers  and  travellers.  In  fuch  a  nitch  or  otlier 
Ihaded  part  within  doors  of  a  houfe  in  the  country,  obferve  the 
degrees  of  heat ;  and  alfo  at  five  feet  above  tlie  ground  (the 
thermometer  hanging  clear  of  what  might  add  to  its  heat) 
of  an  o-ptn  Jield  or  main  road. 

In  July,  when  in  doors  the  heat  was  80°,  in  the  back  yard 
north  of  the  houfe  in  tlic  fun-lhine  it  was  100  at  five  feet 
above  the  ground,  .ind  at  the  fouth  doer  lo.'S^'  nine  feet  nbov- 
the  ftreet. 


ICE    HOUSLs. 


ICE     HOUSES. 

Ice  is  applicabls  to  economical  purpofes  in  hot 
weather,  efpecially  in  countr}^  families.* 

In  1 77 1 5  I  built  an  ice-houfe  in  the  peninfula  of 
Chefapeak,  -where  the  ground  is  flat  and  the  furface 
only  feventeen  feet  above  the  high  ^^-ater  mark  of  a 
fait  water  river,  and  80  yards  from  ir.     It  was  con- 

ftrufted 

*  "  I  never  was  in  better fpirits  than  here  in  this  hot  coan- 
"  try  (Sicily),  I  believe  the  quantities  of  ice  we  eat,  in  ices, 
"  contribute  to  It ;  for  I  find,  in  a  very  violent  heat  there  is 
"  no  Tach  cordial  to  the  Ipirits  as  ice,  or  a  draught  of  iced 
"  water.  Its  cold  ^racej  the  fiomach,  and  gives  a  new  tome 
**  to  ik:f,lr£s.  I  knew  an  Engliih  lady,  at  Nice,  foon  cuied 
^  of  a  threatening  confiimption,  by  a  free  indulgence  in  the 
"  ufe  of  ices," — Probably  attended  with  internal  b!icJlng ; 
which  it  is  iaid  cucumbers,  cold  in  their  nature,  have  cured. 
**  It  is  the  common  praftice  here,  Sicily,  to  give  quantities 
"  of  ice  waters  to  drink  in  inflammatory  fevers."  Brjdone. 
But  great  caution  is  to  be  obferved  that  it  be  not  drunk  when 
you  are  '■warmed  at  all  by  any  kind  of  motion :  much  Ids 
when  you  are  in  a  l:at  from  esercife. 

'•'  The  cuftom  in  Sicily  and  Italy  of  taking  ice,  is  confider- 
"  ed  as  a  powerful  remedy  in  many  difeafes.  The  phyCcians 
"  cf  thefe  countries  do  not  give  many  medicines ;  but  fre- 
"  quendy  prefcribe  a  fevere  regimen ;  and  prevent  the  bane- 
"  fill  eflPeSs  cf  various  difeafes,  by  fuffering  the  Cck,  for  fe- 
♦«  veral  days,  to  take  nothing  but  water  cooled  by  ice,  fvreet 
"  oranges,  and  iced  fruits."     Stolbsr^. 


ICE    HOUSES.  30J 

ftrucT:cd  with  great  care  to  prevent  entrance  of  air,  ac- 
cording to  the  then  univerfai  pra£lice;  and  it  was  filled 
with  1 700  fohd  feet  of  ice,  the  pit  being  1 2  feet 
fquare  and  1 2  feet  deep  :  but  it  failed  of  keeping  the 
ice  till  fummer,  bccaufe  of  its  moiflure  and  clofenefs. 
When  the  pit  was  dug  it  fliewed  fome  appearance  of 
moiflure  near  the  bottom  :  the  lead  moiflure  is  too 
much  for  an  ice-houfe.  Moiflure  at  the  fides  or  bot- 
tom of  an  ice-pit,  is  raifed  to  the  infide  furface  of  the 
dome  by  a  heat  which,  in  the  deepefl  pits  that  can 
be  dug,  is  much  above  the  freezing  degree,  and  if 
the  pit  be  clofe  it  recoils  on  the  ice  for  want  of  a 
vent.  If  the  clofe  pit  is  not  frequently  opened  it  be- 
comes very  warm,  and  the  ice  is  foft  and  pappy  at 
the  top.  The  deepefl  and  coolefl  pits  are  about 
twenty  degrees  warmer  than  the  freezing  point :  fo 
that  no  depth  of  a  pit  can  prefcrve  ice  from  melting. 
It  is  from  a  greedinefs  for  depth  that-  we  too  often 
meet  with  duffip  earth. 

Some  years  afterwards,  I  made  another  ice-houfcj 
150  yards  from  the  above  mentioned,  on  the  prin- 
ciples and  in  the  manner  following  :  vent  was  an 
elTential  obje^ ;  and  drjncfs  with  coolnefs  led  me  to 
the  defign  of  infulating  the  mafs  with  a  bed  of  flraw 
furrounding  a  pen  of  logs  which  was  to  contain  the 
ice.  The  pit  was  dug  on  a  fpot  open  to  v.  ind  and 
fun,  for  the  fake  of  drynefs.  It  was  9  feet  deep. 
Within  it  was  the  pen  of  logs,  of  that  depth,  and  g 

U  feet 


3o5  ICE    HOUSES. 

feet  fquare  in  the  clear.  It  contained  but  a  .tittle 
more  than  700  folid  feet — only  half  the  quantity 
ftored  in  common  ice-pits.  A  houfe  was  over  the 
whole ;  rather  for  excluding  rain  than  air.  The 
fides  of  the  houfe  were  5  or  6  feet  high.  The  eaves 
were  boarded  up,  but  not  clofe,  and  the  principal 
vent  was  at  the  top  of  a  pavillion  roof. 

Strazc  is  a  cocMerable  reliiler  or  non-conductor  of 
heat.  Let  it  be  clean,  found  and  dry  ;  and  lay  it 
clofe  between  the  logs  and  bank,  with  an  abundance 
of  it  upon  the  ice.  The  fmall  mafs  of  ice  flored  in 
the  above  infulated  pen,  700  feet,  was  daily  ufed  of 
very  freely,  and  iailed  near  as  long  as  double  the 
quantity  flored  in  a  clofe  ice-pit  as  commonly  con- 
llrucled,  and  which  is  on  the  hill  in  Union  ffcreet, 
Philadelphia  ;  the  earth,  whereof  is  dry  and  gravelly 
from  near  the  furface  down  to  the  bottom. 

In  plate  V.  is  a  fe£l:ion  of  this  infulated  ice-pit. 
The  pen  or  cell  iniide  of  the  logs,  is  1 1  feet  fquare, 
1 1  feet  deep,  whereof  51  are  under  ground  and  5! 
above  ground,  and  it  contains  1330  folid  htt.  The 
fpace  between  the  logs  and  the  bank,  at  bottom  is 
near  one  foot ;  the  fame  at  top  is  about  2  or  il  feet. 
The  link  for  receiving  water  from  the  melting  ice 
need  be  only  5  or  6  inches  deep  if  it  be  good  ground, 
and  8  or  9  feet  fquare.  Logs  are  laid  acrofs  it. 
An  ice-pit  of  1300  folid  feet,  if  infulated  as  above, 

I 


ICE     HOUSES.  ^ChJ 

I  believe  would  keep  more  ice  than  any  private  fa- 
mily could  want  j  fuppoCng  the  pit  is  not  deep,  and 
the  ground  is  dry.  If  1300  feet  of  ice  (liould  not 
be  fufficient,  in  another  year  heap  upon  it  a  foot 
more  in  thicknefs  ;  and  fo  foot  upon  foot,  as  may 
be  rcquifite.  Thefe  additions  are  above  ground. 
Ice,  in  ice-houfes,  melts  more  at  the  bottom  and  fides 
than  on  the  top  ;  unlefs  it  may  be  otherwife  in  very 
clofe  pits  feldom  opened.  A  pen  of  eleven  feet 
cube,  requires  a  houfe  over  it  of  only  eleven  or 
twelve  feet  fquare. 

The  winds  raofl  injurious  to  ice  are  from  theycw/^ 
to  the  east.  The  door  being  on  the  7iort/j  fide,  needs 
no  paflage.  Rats  are  to  be  guarded  agalnft.  The 
caves  are  to  be  clofed  againft  them  :  but  openings 
may  be  left  on  the  north  fide,  at  the  eaves,  for  ad- 
mitting the  fleam  to  pafs  out,  there  as  well  as  at  the 
common  vent  on  the  top  of  the  roof.  Thefe  open- 
ings may  be  from  lattice  work  in  wood  or  wire  :  or  a 
plank  may  be  projected  below  the  opening,  and  be-- 
yond  the  reach  of  rats. 

All  the  building  materials  are  to  be  on  the  fpoty 
ready  to  be  put  up  as  foon  as  the  pit  is  dug,  \ei\  rain 
damage  the  pit  before  the  houfe  can  be  covered. 

Pound  the  ice  fmall,  and  prefer  to  (lore  it  in  keen 

Tcather.     In  fuch  li-cathcr  a  neighbour  dafned  water 

U  c  on. 


3oS  ICE    HOUSZS. 

on  his  pounded  ice,  a  pailful  or  two  to  each  cart 
load,  as  foon  as  it  was  flored  and  pounded,  load  by 
load  :  and  he  informed  me  it  anfwered  well,  in  doling 
and  cementing  the  mafs. 

Ice-houfes  are  to  be  left  oj>cn  fome  time,  till  dry, 
before  filling  them  with  ice.     When  the  houfe  is  to . 
be  charged  with  ice,  firfl  \2.j  fniall  fa^ois  on  the 

grate ;  and  on  thefe  reeds,  rather  than  iba.w  as  is 
common.  Corn  or  maize  ilalks  are  very  fpongy, 
and  holding  water  feem  improper.  The  thiimer  the 
ice,  the  eafier  it  is  broken  to  ponder  ;  and  the  fmaller 
it  is  broke,  the  better  it  will  unite  into  a  clofe  mafs. 
— Ram  the  ice  clofe  as  poffible  in  its  place.  Count 
Stolberg,  fays  in  Sicily  they  prefer y7;^zfj  as  it  is  more 
eaiily  prefer\xd  than  ice.     The  fnow  is  clofely  packed 


together,  and  covered  with  fir  aw.* 


INTDIA- 


*  Janiiary  1 797.  Viewed  the  ice  boufe  at  the  tavern,  on 
Glofter  point  near  Philadelphia.  It  is  built  Yrithin  a  few  fteps 
on  the  nortii  fide  of  the  tavera,  and  Bear  the  margin  of  a 
drained  low  meadow  of  fome  miles  ertent,  and  of  the  river 
Delaware  ;  but  a  few  feet  higher  than  the  meadow  and  rlrer. 
It  was  dug  5  feet  deep  (feemingly  3  feet  too  deep).  Then 
filled  up  2  feet  with  logs,  and  ftraw  upon  them ;  learing  5 
feet  cf  ice  under  ground  ;  and  about  6  feet  above  ground,  iht 
ice  inclofed  in  llraw  ;  which  ahb  is  a  lining  to  die  houfe  or 
flabs,  coTcred  with  a  flight  roof  of  flabs.  It  was  tlien  fill  of 
ice,  in  pieces  the  fize  of  fmall  apples.  Sixty -one  loads  of  a 
one  horfe  cart  filled  it.  In  the  year  preceding  27  fuch  loads 
fupplied  the  tavern  with  ice  till  fome  lime  of  Augu^. 


INTIMATIONS,    ^c.  5^9 

INTIMATIONS; 

On  Manufa&ures  ; — on  the  Fruits  of  Agriculture  ; — 
and  on  New  Sources  of  Trade,  interfering  zvitb 
Products  of  the  United  States  of  America  in  Foreig?i 
Markets. 

The  countries  of  Europe  abounding  in  manufac- 
turers and  failors j  and  fuperabounding  in  foldicrs  and 
minifters  of  religion,  buy  bread  from  other  countries ; 
chiefly  from  Ptland,  America  and  Barbary  ;  and,  ge- 
nerally, the  countries  which  fell  fome,  buy  more  than 

they 

January  1798  I  again  faw  tliis  ice  ho\ife  ;  and  was  affured 
that  the  61  loads  kept  through  the  fummer,  and  that  "  fome 
loads  of  ice  were  in  it  when  ice  came  again."  The  only  way 
into  it  is  by  a  fmall  door,  about  2i  feet  fquare  at  the  gable 
end  into  the  roof. 

July  5th,  1799,  Mrs.  Marfhal  affures  me,  her  ice  kept  in  this 
ice-houfe  through  the  laft  fummer,  1798,  and  until  the  Dela- 
ware was  frozen  in  the  laft  winter.  It  is  aftonifhing  !  Ice  keeps 
not  fo  well  in  the  pits  in  the  high  grounds  in  Philadelphia. 
Many  people  view  her  ice-houfe  ;  and  admire  at  the  keeping 
ice  in  it  fo  much  better — almoft  in  a  drained  meadow  ! 

Above,  Jlrarjj  is  fpoken  of  as  being  a  confiderable  refiftcr 
or  non-conduftor  of  heat.  The  Annals  of  Chemiftry,  vol. 
26,  Fr.  as  cited  by  Tillock's  Phllofophical  Mag.  2,  pa.  182, 
fays,  "  It  is  well  known  that  charcoal  is  one  of  the  wcakeft 
condudtors  of  heat."  Hence  the  thought  of  double  tvalls  for 
filling  the  inter medi . ite  fpacewitlifWfoa/;  and  he  appUes  tht? 


^ra  INTIMATIONS    OtT 

they  fell.  '  The  bread  countr)^,  England,  buys  more 
than  fhe  fells ;  and,  at  the  fame  time,  it  is  a  happinefs 
to  her  that  Ihe  is  fuperior  in  the  number  and  the 
excellency  of  her  maniifad:iir€rs  ;  who,  with  her 
failors,  are  the  more  defirable  mere  confumcrs  of 
bread,  giving  fupport  to  a  conftant  good  market,  oi 
home,  for  the  corn,  the  meat,  the  wool,  and  gene- 
rally ail  the  productions  of  her  land  ;  fo  that  England 
abounds  in  the  neceifaries  and  comforts  of  life,  within 
herfelf,  from  a  well  proportioned  employment  of  her 
farmers  and  tradefmen,  who  mutually  fupply  each 
other's  wants :  and  Ihe  furniflies  foreign  countries 
with  a  prodigious  overplus  of  the  fruits  of  her  manu- 
factories and  commerce  \  which  has  rendered  her  rich, 
powerful,  and  lefs  dependent  than  other  nations. 
The  fifty  or  Cxty  fhip  loads  of  wheat  which  die  buys 
more  than  {he  fells,  are  inconfiderable  when  compar- 
ed with  the  great  profits  of  her  immenfe  commerce 
and  manufactures.  The  yearly  buying  more  bread 
from  abroad  than  fhe  fells,  afiures  to  her  hufband- 
men  a  conlfant  demand  and  full  price  for  the  corn  pro- 
duced 

idea  to  "  ice-houfes  above  ground,^*  He  adds,  *'  at  the  fame 
beat,  a  body  incloled  in  charcoal  does  not  receive  but  about 
two-thirds  of  tlie  heat  of  a  body  furrounded  by  quartzeous 
fand  ;  and  that  the  redudtion  of  fubjeds  which  do  not  melt 
but  at  a  heat  of  130  degrees,  cannot  be  effected  in  charcoal.'* 

As  often  as  the  river  tides  are  high  its  water  oozes  into  tlie 
ice  pit ;  a  pump  is  therefore  at  one  comer  of  the  houfe,  for 
freeing  it  of  the  water. 


NEW    SOURCES,    ^C  311 

duced  by  their  lands ;  and  this  is  a  great  encourage- 
ment to  a  vigorous  cultivation  of  them  ;  as  it  gives  an 
income  to  the  induflrious  countryman,  independent 
of  uncertain  demand  by  foreign  countries. 

A  ftatute  of  the  parliament  of  Great  Britain,  of 
no  long  {landing,  compels  the  mod  minute  entry  to 
be  made  in  the  Britifh  cuflom  houfe,  of  every  fort  of 
corn,  as  well  what  is  imported  as  exported.  The 
firfl  report  made  to  the  parliament,  under  that  fla- 
tute,  was  of  the  firfl  eight  years  after  it  was  in  force  ; 
by  which  it  appears,  on  a  medium  of  the  eight  years, 
that  there  were  imported  into  England  about  600,000 
bufliels  of  wheat  yearly,  more  than  were  exported — 
near  60  fbip  loads,* 

^Poland  and  America  import  no  bread.  For  want 
of  numerous  manufacturers  and  failors,  the  moft  ufc- 
ful  confumers  of  bread,  who  make  none,  they  have 
not  a  demand  at  home  for  one  half  of  the  produce 
of  their  lands  :  they  therefore  export  great  quanti- 
ties ;  America,  efpecially,  depending  thereon  for 
fupplies  of  clothing  and  other  comforts :  which  flie 

might 

*  This  is  here  dated  from  memory.  It  is  liopcd  it  is  not 
materially,  if  at  all  erroneous.  That  there  is  a  deficiency  of 
com  produced  in  the  united  nation  of  England  and  Scotland, 
we  are  afTured  by  a  fubfequent  report  of  a  committee  of  the 
Lords  of  council  to  tlicir  king,  on  a  bill  then  before  the  Parlia- 
ment ;  in  which  it  is  declared,  that  "  Great  Briuin  is  not  able 
to  fupply  itfelf  witli  bread,  without  aid  from  other  countries." 


312  INTIMATIONS    ON 

might  foon,  in  a  great  meafure,  manufafture  within 
herfelf.  Ought  fhc  not,  therefore,  to  prefer  it  to  a 
dependence  ahogether  on  foreign  countries  ? 

Somewhat  has  been  faid,  in  pubhc,  of  manufafto- 
ries  in  America  ;  whether  it  be  advifable  to  promote 
them  in  this  early  flage  of  her  political  exigence,  or 
to  depend  on  procuring  goods  from  other  countries, 
with  the  produce  of  her  lands  ?  Have  we  not  "  room 
for  looms  and  the  various  arts  ?"  Why  then  fhould 
not  this  nation,  in  its  prefent  youthful  vigor,  begin 
to  apportion  her  employment  between  hufbandry  and 
manufaftories  ?  which  in  experience  prove  to  be  fo 
coincident,  fo  promotive  of  wealth  and  independence, 
as  to  have  rendered  Britain  rich  in  all  comforts,  with 
a  purfe  pou  erful  in  war;  but  which  fome  on  both 
fides  of  the  Atlantic  think  has  unwarily  admitted  of 
a  degree  of  pride  in  her,  that,  according  to  what  is 
common  to  that  vice,  bodes  an  approaching  reverfe 
in  the  current  of  her  affairs.  Belides,  in  the  courfe 
of  a  great  influx  of  emigrants  to  America,  many,  if 
not  the  greater  number,  are  mechanics.  When  thefe 
land  on  the  fea  coaft,  and  find  little  or  no  employ- 
ment for  them  in  the  way  of  their  profeffion,  will  they 
generally  go  to  country  labour  ?  Pafl  experience 
fays  they  will  recrofs  the  Atlantic,  or  travel  farther 
weflward,  and  fit  down  on  lands  eafier  obtained,  and 
where  they  caji  live  on  lefs  labour  than  they  could 
among  the  old  fettlements  in  the  hither  country. 

Bur 


NEW    SOURCES,    ^C,  313 

But  if  manufa£lories  were  on  foot  among  us,  it  would 
be  natural  that  they  fhould  geacrally  prefer  the  em- 
ployment they  had  been  uf:d  to  ;  and  by  fitting  down 
to  their  trades,  they  would  gradually  advance  the 
arts  in  America,  whiifl:  the  more  rapid  increafe  of 
huibandry  would  be  the  means  of  fupplying  them 
with  bread  in  payment  for  their  goods,  and  leave 
an  overplus  to  be  exported  to  foreign  markets.  "  It 
however  is  material  to  the  vigor  and  worth  of  manu- 
fa£lories,  that  they  be  not  difperfed.  They  are 
more  or  lefs  advantageous,  according  as  they  are  car- 
ried on  in  towns,  or  in  detached  habitations  in  the 
country.  In  general,  the  manufafturer  in  the  coun- 
try has  his  farm,  or  a  lot  of  ground,  which  divides 
his  attention  with  that  of  his  fhop,  whereby  both 
crafts  fufFer  ;  and  certain  it  is,  fays  Mr.  Toimg,  their 
hufbandry  is  always  execrable — the  fliop  and  the 
field  are  coudu(5led  with  little  fpirit :  both  are  mean 
in  the  quantity  and  the  quality  of  the  productions ; 
and  the  living  of  the  farmer -trade]  man  is  according 
to  it.  But  in  towns  the  trade  is  alone  depended  on, 
and  the  productions  are  more  and  better  :  fo  of  the 
thorough -farmer^  from  whom  he  buys  his  bread,  and 
to  whom  he  fells  his  goods." 

When  our  employment  fliall  be  duly  apportioned 
between  huibandry  and  manufaftorics,  the  comforts 
of  life  will  be  certain  ;  as  they  will  be  procured  with- 
in our  country,  independent  of  the  caprice  of  foreign 

countries  : 


314  INTIMATIONS    ON 

countries :  with  the  overplus  of  thefe  we  are  to  ob- 
tain exotic  delicacies,  luxuries,  and  bullion. 

"  From  well  chofen  employments  are  derived  the 
riches,  the  flrength,  the  independency,  and  the  hap- 
pinefs  of  nations.*'  If  the  employment  be  in  things 
neceflary  and  convenici^c,  it  is  infinitely  better  than 
when  applied  in  producing  luxuries.  With  necefla- 
ries  plentifully  produced  at  home,  we  may  be  inde-- 
pendent  of  other  nations.  An  abfolute  independency, 
which  (huts  out  commercial  and  in  effect  focial  inter- 
courfe,  is  not  meant.  Nations  do  not  all  yield  the 
fame  productions  ;  and  few,  if  any,  properly  divide 
their  employment  between  hufbandry  and  manufac- 
tories. Britain  is  the  neareft  to  it.  JEven  where 
the  bed  proportion  prevails,  luxuries  and  trifles  will 
have  fome  fliare  of  attention  among  the  ar tills,  al- 
though common  fenfe  directs  that,  efpecially  for  the 
Intereds  of  a  young  country,  the  firfl  and  principal 
application  fliould  be  to  procure  necejfaries  as  well  for 
staples  cf  commerce  as  for  domefric  ufes  ;  fuch  as  food, 
clothing,  ammunition,  &:c.  Yet  legillators  will  not 
over  bufily  warp  employment  againft  its  natural 
bent.  They  may  invite  and  gently  incline  it ;  avoid- 
ing dogmatical  inhibition  or  command,  unlefs  it  may 
be  on  very  extraordinary  national  occafions.  Nor 
will  they  ereft  monopolies,  directly  or  indirectly,  or 
give  undue  preferences.     Temporary  patent  rights 

for 


NEW    SOURCES,     Effr.  315 

for  Inventions  are  not  meant.*     To  fet  about  making 
fine  goods  before  we  are  full  of  necejjary  comforts, 
fcems  a  beginning  at  the  wrong  end. 

The  hianufaftures  wiflied  to  be  firft  promoted  arc 
efpecially  of  plain  clothing  and  blankets ^  arms  and  am- 
munition. Manufafturcs  of  woollen  goods  are  full  in 
our  view — In  promoting  thefe,  we  increafe  the  quan- 
tity of  meat  and  ildns  as  well  as  of  wool.  They  are 
not  exotic ;  but  precious  materials  furniflied  by  our 
hufbandmen.  A  bounty  on  the  exportation  of  arms 
and  ammunition  made  within  the  Tiation^  would  foon 
caufe  thofe  effentials  to  abound  in  the  country  for 
its  neceffary  defence.  Yet  it  is  in  a  fpirited  and 
flourijfoing  hujhafidry  that  the  foundest  health  and 
comfort  of  nations  is  found.  It  is  2i  plenty  of  food 
and  clothing,  plain  and  good,  rather  than  fine  things, 
which  gives  content  and  cheerfulnefs  to  a  people;  and 
it  is  the  great  mafs  of  the  people  that  are  induftrious, 
rather  than  the  idle  poor  or  the  luxurious  few,  who 
are  principally  confidered  by  legiilatures. 

What  if  to  the  bread  wanted  by  fome  countries, 
which  is  at  prefent  fupplied  by  Poland,  America  and 

Barbary, 

*  Perhaps  It  were  better  to  grant  retvards  proportioned  to 
the  ufefulnefs  of  difcoverie's  or  inventions,  tlian  exclufive  patent 
rights.  There  are  confiderablc  objcdions  to  die  hitter,  in  ex- 
pcri-cnce,  however  fair  it  (lands  in  theory  ;  and  infinite  advan- 
tages would  arife  from  an  immediate  free  ufe  of  the  invention, 
at  large. 


3l6  INTIMATIONS    ON 

Barbary,  oise  or  two  great  additional  fonrces  of  tt 
xhould  be  opened?  How  would  the  hufbandry  and  the 
income  of  our  country  be  affected  by  it?  Would  there 
not  be  then  felt  a  want  of  manufacturers,  confumers 
of  bread  who  make  none,  yet  who  would  preferve 
the  value  of  the  produce  of  our  hufbandry  by  fuch 
confuraptioD,  and  furnifli  other  neceffaries  and  com- 
forts from  their  various  odtupations  ?  There  is  reafoa 
to  believe  that  yet  a  little  while,  and  the  productions 
of  the  countries  on  the  Nieper  and  the  Danube  will 
ruih  through  the  Straits  of  Constantinople  into  the 
Mediterranean,  and  thence  into  all  Europe.  The 
wheat  of  the  Ukrain,  hitherto  fhut  up  by  the  Turk, 
fells  at  if.  to  if.  flerling  a  bufhel.  The  countries  fo 
fliut  up  alfo  abound  in  cattle,  hemp,  tobacco,  &c. 
Trhich  are  to  be  conveyed  through  thefe  ftraits  to  a 
market  new  and  important  to  thofe  countries ;  which 
articles  will  greatly  interfere  w'ith  and  cheapen  the 
produce  of  our  country.  The  Banat  is  faid  to  be  by 
far  the  cheapeil  country  in  Europe,  in  all  neceflary 
productions,  meat,  bread,  wine,  fruits,  &c.  The 
culture  of  rice  was  introduced  there  by  the  late  Em- 
peror with  great  and  increafing  fuccefs.  Prices  in 
the  vicinity  of  Tybifcus  river  are  in  flerling,  as  fol- 
low:* vrheat  at   lyd.  an  Englifh  bufhd ;  rye  iid. 

barley 

♦  Tnz  Tybifcu?,  or  TeiiTe.  is  a  large  river,  which  takes  its 
r*d"e  in  the  Carpathian  mountains  ;  pafTes  by  Tockay  through 
Hungary,  and  falls  into  the  Danube  above  Belgrade.  The 
Banat  is  the  countrvof  Temefwaer. 


NEW     SOURCES,     '<^C.  317 

barley  yd.\  ;  hay  in  towns,  lo/:  a  ton  ;  in  the  coun- 
try, 2>f'  ^  '^^"  ^^  40/  to  50/  a  cow  30/:  to  45/. 
(cattle  are  dearer  than  grain,  becaufe  they  are  rea- 
dily driven  to  market :  they  are  driven  by  thoufands 
annually,  from  the  Ukrmn,  through  Poland  into  5/- 
lefta  and  Germany)  mutton,  i^.  a  ft.  beef,  from  id, 
to  id.i'y  pork,  id.i,  to  2d.  wine,  45  gallons  new,  in 
a  good  vintage,  7/.  to  42/.  according  to  quality  ;  rent, 
2/6  to  4/.  the  Englifli  acre  ;  and  all  this  cheapnefs  we 
prefume  is  owing  to  the  want  of  a  pafTage  through 
the  ftraits  of  Conftantinople,  to  foreign  markets — 
the  very  markets  hitherto  fupplied  by  Poland,  Jme- 
rica  and  Barbary.*  The  Turk  is  to  be  forced  by 
the  Czarina  and  the  Emperor  to  fuffer.  a  palTage 

through 

*  «  The  clogs  to  the  exportatioaof  the  produce  of  ^wn^ary, 
^  is  an  evil  continually  galling  individuals.  Wherever  I 
<*  went  (iays  Mr.  To'wnfon)  I  was  led  into  cellars /«//  of  ivmc^ 
•«  and  into  granaries /:J/  of  corn^  and  I  was  flicwn  paftures 
^^  full  of  cattle.  If  I  felicitated  the  owners  upon  tlieir  rich 
««  ftorcs,  I  heard  one  common  complaint — the  tf^n/  of  a  mar- 
«'  ket,  want  of  buyers.  Wine  bought  in  Hungary  for  133  cents, 
"  has  an  additional  expenfe  on  it  of  177  cents,  in  all  310  cents 
««  when  it  reaches  the  port  of  Triefie  :  and  the  com  bought  for 
««  44  cents,  an  expenfe  of  1 33,  both  177  cents  at  Triefie.  The 
«  raw  produce,  unmanufadured,  which  Hungary  exports,  are 
«  cattle,  hogs,  Iheep,  goats,  metals,  minerals,  flour,  wheau 
"  rye,  oats,  hnen,  woollen  cloth,  wine,  wool,  wax,  potafti,  fill:, 
"  ftonewarc,  tobacco,  flax,  hemp,  feathers,  fi(h,  fkins,  leather, 
«  furs,  tallow,  foap."  The  above  fums  in  cen^s,  are  lite  value 
of  the  fterling  money  in  the  quoted  pallag?. 


3l8  INTIMATIONS     ON 

through  thofe  flraits :  it  already  has  been  of  late 
nearly  accompliflied. 

You  fay  the  above  events  are  problematical,  or 
at  a  great  diftance  of  time  :  but  there  is  one  of  a 
different  nature  and  very  influential  in  the  argument 
which  is  more  certain  and  nearer  at  hand.  With 
the  improvements  in  government,  v.hich  the  phiio- 
fopbical  fpirit  of  modern  times  is  producing,  the 
condition  of  mankind  will  be  bettered,  and  in  no 
circumftance  will  it  be  more  perceptible  than  in  their 
greater  ikill  in  all  the  arts,  as  well  in  agriculture  as 
others.  Then  will  France  be  fully  equal,  to  fupply 
her  own  demands  for  wheat,  and  Spain  and  Poi-tugal 
will  be  fo  in  no  long  time. 

Another  new  fource  may  be  in  hid'm,  Sugs.r  has 
not  become  a  common  article  from  that  quarter  till 
lately.  When  in  1792,  it  fold  there  i^f.  or  18/I 
near  four  Spanifti  dollars  a  hundred,  it  was  fold  50/I 
to  6of.  in  London.  A  fudden  and  till  then  unknown 
demand  for  fugars  by  Europe  and  America  occaConed 
an  increafed  price  in  India :  and  the  demand  having 
continued  and  increafed,  has  Simulated  the  Indostans 
to  increafe  the  culture  of  fugar  canes  with  great  fpi- 
rit, for  fupplying  Europe  and  America  with  fugar. 
The  Calcutta  gazettes  are  full  of  the  defigns  of  plant- 
ing and  cultivating  the  fugar  cane  :  and  now  we  are 
aflured  by  fome  of  cur  countrymen,  who  have  been 

lately 


NEW     SOURCES,     ^C.  319 

lately  in  India,  that  the  ii'beat  of  that  country  is  very 
fine,  and  is  fold  at  i  id.  fterling  for  an  Englifli  bufliel. 
If  then  their  fugar  makes  a  freight  and  a  profit  when 
carried  to  Europe,  fo  may  their  icheat ;  provided  it 
Ihould  bear  fo  long  a  voyage.  It  would  fell  at  above 
500  per  cent,  when  their  fugars  would  fcarcely  ob- 
tain 300.  Bat  will  the  bulk  and  price  of  wheat  ad- 
mit of  a  freight  and  profit  fufficient  for  the  adven- 
turer ?  Mr.  Laxv,  in  his  iketches  of  arrangements  in 
Bengal,  for  the  year  1789,  fays  it  would  clear  50 
per  cent.  "  I  faw,  he  fays,  much  extended  cultivation 
and  increafing  population  xhvowgh  Bengal :  but  there 
is  fome  apprehenfion  of  a  want  of  confumption  ;  grain 
felling  in  fome  places  loofcand  upwards  for  iid. 
fterling,  (equal  to  yd.-  a  bufliel  of  6clb  )  Wheat 
might  certainly  be  exported  from  Bengal  with  great 
fuccefs. — It  would  be  Ihipped  for  yf^  fterling,  the 
Englifli  quarter  which  is  under  iid.  2l  bufliel.  At 
58/'.  a  quarter  in  London,  it  would  yield  50  per  cent, 
profit  on  coft  and  charges  of  freight,"  &:c. 

Although  wheat  from  India  fliould  not  always  bear 
the  voyage,  yet  the  flour  of  it,  which  is  very  fine, 
might.  Flour  carried  from  the  Delazcare  to  the 
Ganges,  proved  perfectly  good  when  returned  from 
thence  to  Philadelphia  in  a  late  voyage.  But  if  nei- 
ther their  wheat  nor  their  flour  could  be  carried  to 
Europe  in  good  condition,  yet  their  rice,  the  com- 
mon bread  of  the  country,  could..     It  ufually  is  very 

cheap  J 


320  INTIMATIONS     ON 

cheap ;  and  whilfl  their  labour  is  but  2d.  fieri,  or  37 
mills  a  day,  all  the  fruits  of  that  labour  will  continue 
to  be  cheap. 

Whether  the  great  fources  of  the  countries  on  the 
Nieper  and  the  Danube  (hall  foon  be  opened  or  fhall 
not,  there  is  at  prefent  fuch  an  apparent  probability 
of  it  as  may  induce  us  farmers  to  coDiider  in  time  how 
we  are  to  avert  the  threatened  ill  effe£i:s  of  a  change 
that  muft  be  as  ludden  as  important.  The  farmer 
of  fiafliy  oftentaticn  may  efpecially  think  of  retrench- 
ing waileful  habits :  and  whilfl  legiflators  may  wifh 
that  labour  be  apportioned  between  hufbandry  and 
manufa6lories,  and  gently  promote  it,  they  will  be 
cautious  how  they  favour  the  one  at  the  expenfe  of 
the  other. 

In  the  Ukrain  and  Poland,  and  on  the  Danube,  la- 
bour is  cheap,  whilfl  with  us  it  is  the  highefl  in  the 
world.  When  we  fhall  have  driven  the  Indians  from 
their  country,  what  will  be  the  condition  of  the  peo- 
ple of  the  hither  flates,  rcfpecting  labour  which  al- 
ready is  fo  much  drained  from  them  by  the  ultra- 
montane country  ?  This  will  not  immediately  affecl 
all  the  flates ;  but  it  foon  may,  and  who  can  fay  how 
fooD  it  will  not. 

POTATO 


POTATO     SPIRIT,    ^C,  XZl 


POTATO  SPIRIT;    AND  BEER. 

What  is  called  IriQi-potato,  as  if  derived  from  Ire- 
land, was  firfl  found  in  Peru  ;  and  might  therefore  be 
more  properly  called  Peruvian-potato,  according  to 
Mr.  Romans :  or  globe-potato,  from  its  fliape. 

Doftor  Anderfon,  of  Scotland,  gives'  an  account 
of  an  extraordinary  fpirit  which  he  procured  from 
this  potato. 

In  February  he  boiled  to  a  foft  pulpy  ftafe,  a 
bulhel  of  them  weighing  72^^:*  then  bruifed  and 
paired  them  through  a  ftrait  riddle  along  with  fpring 
water,  keeping  the  fkins  back,  in  the  riddle,  and 
throwing  them  away.  Cold  water  was  added  to  the 
pulp,  and  mixed  up  till  the  whole  mixture  was  20 
gallons.  It  ftood  till  cooled  to  the  temperature  ufual 
for  applying  yeafl:  to  wort.  Yeall  was  then  mixed 
with  it  as  if  it  was  malt  wort. 

In  10  or  12  hours  a  fermentation  began,  and  con- 
tinued very  brifkly  10  or  12  hoars ;  and  then  began 
fenfibly  to  abate.  It  was  now  hrijhly  stirred,  and  the 
fermentation  was  thereby  renewed.  The  fame  ope- 
ration, as  often  as  the  head  fell,  was  renewed  every 
day  ;  and  the  fermentation  continued  for  two  weeks. 
It  then  abated,  and  could  no  how  be  further  kept 

X  up, 

*  In  coroOiou  a  bufl\el  weighs  about  6j.ib, 


322  POTATO  spirit; 

up.     The  liquor  had  by  this  time  obtained  a  kind  of 
acid  flightly  vinous  tafte. 

It  was  now  diflilled  with  due  caution  :  care  being 
taken  to  stir  it  in  the  flill,  until  it  began  to  boil  before 
the  head  of  the  flill  was  put  on  ;  and  the  fire  was  af- 
terwards kept  up  fo  ftrong  as  to  keep  it  boiling  brijkh;^ 
till  the  whole  was  run  over.  This  boiling  prevented 
the  thick  matter  from  fubiiding  to  the  bottom  and 
bein^  ftill-burnt. 

"  In  confequence  of  thefe  precautions  and  due 
*'  rectification  I  obtained,  fays  Mr.  Anderfon,  an 
"  Engliih  gallon  of  pure  fpirit,  conCderably  above 
"  proof,  and  about  a  quart  more  of  a  weaker  kind, 
*'  a  good  deal  below  proof.  It  was  in  every  refpecl 
"  the  fined  and  mofl  agreeable  vinous  fpirit  I  ever 
"  faw.  It  was  fomewhat  like  very  fine  brandy : 
*'  but  was  milder,  and  had  a  kind  of  coolnefs  on  the 
*'  palate  peculiar  to  itfelf.  Its  flavour  was  flill  more 
"  peculiar,  and  refembled  brandy  impregnated  with 
"  the  odour  of  violets  and  rafpberries,  A  fingle  glafs 
"  of  it  put  into  a  bowl  of  rum  punch  gave  it  a  flavour 
"  of  half  rum,  half  brandy  impregnated  with  rafp- 
"  berries.  There  was  no  difierence  in  the  tafle  of 
"  the  very  weak  eft  of  its  fpirit,  near  the  end  of  the 
"  diftiiling  and  that  of  the  firft ;  which  is  a  great 
"  peculiarity." 

The 


AND    BEER. 


Z'^Z 


The  white  pulp  at  the  bottom  of  the  fllll  is,  he 
fays,  every  way  applicable  to  domeftic  ufes  ;  for  the 
table  or  for  live-ftock,  as  the  whole  potato  is.  But 
might  it  not,  under  fome  circumftances,  be  better  ap- 
plied in  producing  ftarch  ? 

In  the  firfl:  week  oi  August  1790,  I  made  an  expe- 
riment, according  to  Mr.  Anderfon,  for  procuring 
potato  fpirit,  from  potatoes  then  gathered  for  the 
purpofe,  from  vines  not  dead,  but  only  beginning  to 
be  yellowifli.  But  in  feveral  attempts  could  never 
get  the  math  to  ferment.  The  failure  feemed  owing 
to  the  potatoes  being  not  perfedly  matured ;  and  ma- 
turity is  always  an  effential  for  obtaining  a  vinous 
fermentation  from  vegetables.  There  alfo  feems  to  be 
another  reafon  for  the  failure.  Mr.  Anderfon  made 
his  experiment  in  February  ;  a  fpring  month,  when 
doubtlefs  his  potatoes  were  coni\dQX2h\j  fprouted ', 
and  fo  far  were  malted.  Grain  is  purpofely  fprouted, 
prior  to  fermenting  it  for  making  beer  or  for  dlflilla- 
tion ;  and  in  Maryland  thefe  potatoes  fpontanecully 
fprout  and  grow  in  February  and  March  :  fo  that 
had  I  in  either  of  thefe  months  chanced  to  have  made 
the  experiment,  it  would  without  doubt  have  fuc- 
ceeded. 

Mr.  Anderfon's  candour  and  habits  of  accuracy 

are  eminent ;  and  leave  no  room  to  doubt  that  as  he 

a^ually  procured  the  fine  fpirit  in  the  way  above 

X  2  dated. 


^24  POTATO    SPIRIT  ; 

dated,  the  like  may  be  again  produced,  by  the  like 
attentions. 

I  cannot  exprefs  my  fenle  of  the  ruinous  habits  in 
a  free  ufc  of  drinks  made  from  diftilled  fpirits ;  which 
arc  feen  to  debafe  and  deflroy  very  many  men,  and 
even  fome  good  men  on  whom  the  practice  has  fto- 
len.  In  country  famihes  they  are  ufed  with  a  free- 
dom allonifhing  to  Grangers,  who  have  been  ac- 
cuftomed  to  obferve  a  more  temperate  conduct,  and 
are  in  the  habit  of  drinking  mild  beer.  In  our  large 
towns  beer  is  taking  place  of  diluted  fpirits ;  which 
is  a  reafon  why  there  is  more  fobriety  now  obferved 
in  the  towns  than  formerly,  when  Wefl  India  rum 
abounded  at  a  third  of  its  prefent  price.  Country 
people  pretend  they  know  neither  how  to  get  malt 
or  to  brew  it.  This  is  not  generally  true.  Malt  is 
to  be  had  at  country  malt-works,  in  the  more  provi- 
dent ftates ;  and  maltilers  can  eafily  be  drawn  into  the 
counties  of  other  Hates,  if  country  gentlemen  would 
in  good  earneit  hold  out  proper  encouragement. 
Every  houfewife  knows  how  to  brew,  fomehow;  and 
would  improve  in  it  from  practice. 

It  is  better  to  buy  malt,  or  exchange  barley  for 
malt,  than  to  make  it  in  families ;  and  not  every 
farmer  has  conveniency  for  making  it  with  cafe.  The 
principal  diiliculty  I  found,  was  in  the  heats  of  the 
malt  whiUl  growing.     Finding  no  one  to  inftrufl  me, 

in 


AND    BEER.  325 

in  many  attempts  I  failed  from  giving  too  much  heat : 
for,  feeing  it  feeble  in  growth,  it  was  thrown  into 
more  heat,  and  thereby  flopt  in  its  power  of  further 
vegetating.  Till  at  length  I  fucceeded,  on  applying 
the  heats  given  by  Mr.  Mills  in  his  Huibandry. 

In  Mills's  Hufbandry,  vol.  5.  are  good  inflruftions 
for  making  malt,  and  beer.  The  heats  in  the  malt 
whilft  on  the  floor,  were  all  that  I  wanted  of  him. 
Thefe  he  gives,  thus :  During  the  firft  ten  days  that 
the  malt  was  on  the  floor,  the  heat  in  it  was  between 
50  and  60  degrees.  During  the  next  three  or  four 
days,  it  was  increafed  from  60  to  65  and  6j  degrees ; 
and  during  the  lafl  days  of  its  lying  there,  ro  80, 
84  and  87,  which  lafl:  was  the  degree  of  heat  when 
the  malt  was  put  on  the  kiln.* 

In  country  families  the  good  wife  would  delight 
in  brewing  beer  for  her  hufoand,  to  take  place  of 
the  mad,  mifchief-making  and,  in  the  end,  debilitat- 
ing 

*  Great  lofs  and  Inferiority  occurs  in  America  from  the 
hafty  manner  in  malting.  In  England  a  ftatute  obliges  malt- 
fters  to  work  their  malt  three  ii'eeks.  Such  deliberate  work 
renders  the  malt  pci-feft.  The  Englifli  laws  alfo  prohibit  all 
ufe  of  fugar  or  melaffes  in  brewing,  becaufe  of  the  duties  on 
malt.  Yet  I  fufped,  from  tafte  and  obfervation,  that  the  por- 
ter formerly  fo  in  vogue,  and  To  excellent,  called  Bea.  Kenton  s^ 
liad  a  good  (hare  of  burnt  fugar  or  melaffes  in  it.  How  die 
fugar  could  be  fmuggled  into  that  porter,  can  fcarccly  b^  ac- 
counted for. 


J 


iS  POTATO    SPIRIT  ; 


ing  and  ruinous  brandy  or  fpirit  beverage.  The 
truth  is,  drirxking  beer  is  not  a  fafliion  of  the  coun- 
try. Vile  habit?  bear  down  all  prudence  ard  every 
rational  practice  that  is  recommended  by  the  experi- 
enced lober  friends  of  mankind. 

Whilfl  fpiritous  liquors  continue  to  be  ufed  in 
drink,  the  mildeft  and  belt  ought  to  be  preferred. 
Of  ihefe  the  potato  fpirit  feems  the  leaft  caustic  of 
any  of  the  home  made  fpirits.  By  drawing  the  fpi- 
rit vranttdi  from  pctafoes,  ,the  culture  of  that  root  is 
encouraged,  grmn  is  faved  and  the  befl  preparation 
of  the  foil  for  future  crops  is  increafed. 

During  mofl:  of  the  revolution  war  m^y  reapers 
had  the  choice  of  fmall  beer  or  water  to  drink,  after 
an  uninterrupted  long  ufe  of  rum.  The  beer  had 
body  enough  to  preferve  rheir  flrength  and  a  due 
fiiare  of  cheerfulnefs,  without  ever  fetling  them 
wild  as  had  been  not  uncommon  under  the  ufe  of 
rum.  At  the  end  of  harveft  there  were  no  com- 
plaints of  forenefs  and  want  of  refi :  but  they  con- 
tinued cheerful  and  eafy,  and  expreffed  a  preference 
in  favour  of  beer.  This  beer  v/as  brewed,  enough 
of  it,  iufl  before  harveft.  I  never  met  with  a  fer- 
Tant,  black  cr  white,  who  did  not  like  it ;  and  for 
the  moft  part,  excepting  confirmed  fots,  prefer  it  to 
rum,  Generally,  when  I  have  aJked  poor  travel- 
lers 


AND    BEER.  327 

lers  and  mefTengers  whether  they  would  have  a  drink 
of  beer  or  a  dram  of  rum,  they  preferred  beer. 

Our  country  is  favourable  to  the  production  of 
hops :  and  they  grow  wild.  It  would  be  a  good 
article  to  cultivate  for  the  market,  if  labour  was 
plenty  for  gathering  entire  fields  of  them.  Hops 
arc  bed  cured  by  fire,  as  is  tobacco ;  and  like  to- 
bacco, when  cured  they  become  dry  and  friable  or 
moid  and  tough,  with  the  changes  in  the  atmof- 
phere  :  as  they  pafs  from  the  moiil  ilate  to  the  dry, 
a  portion  of  their  active  qualities  is  loH  in  evapora- 
tion :  therefore  it  is  proper  to  pack  them  away, 
being  thoroughly  cured,  the  firfi:  time  .of  their  be- 
ing "  in  cafe,"  as  tobacco  planters  would  call  it : 
that  is  when  they  will  bear  preffing  in  the  hand 
without  being  too  dry  or  too  moiil  or  high  in  cafe. 

I  am  not  recommending  hops  as  an  article  of  crop 
for  market,  generally.  But  there  are  hufoandraen 
fo  circumftanced  that,  to  them,  it  would  be  a  pro- 
fitable choice.  Every  farmer,  however,  would  do 
well  to  cultivate  50  to  100  hills  of  hops,  for  hav- 
ing at  command  an  article  fo  eflcntial  to  the  making 
good  beer  when  may  hap  he  (hall  wifli  to  introduce 
the  mod  excellent  beverage  in  his  family  :  an  article 
conducive  to  fobriety,  health,  vigor  and  content- 
ment. If  hovv'ever  he  meanly  gives  way  to  an  im- 
pulfe  that  Ihall  unfortunately  continue  him  in  the 

ufc 


328  POTATO     SPIRIT  ; 

life  of  an  rmwholefome,  debilitating,  mifchief-mak- 
ing  choice  of  diflilled  fpirits  in  his  drink,  then  his 
50  to  ICO  hills  produce  of  hops  irould  annually  put 
20  to  40  dollars  in  his  wife's  pocket ;  who  proba- 
bly would  have  the  care  of  thofe  few  plants  in  her 
garden. 

In  England,  great  preference  is  given  to  a  kind 
called  Famkam  bop.  It  is  there  a  furer  crop  than 
other  forts.  The  crop  is  not  only  always  greater, 
t|^t  is  of  a  quality  that  gains  a  confiderably  higher 
price  than  other  kinds.  This  hop  was  introduced 
into  Maryland  by  that  pattern  of  manly  virtues  the 
late  Col.  Sharp,  when  he  was  governor  of  ^lary- 
land.  Some  of  the  roots  he  gave  me ;  of  which  I 
planted  1 50  hills :  and  at  the  fame  time  and  place 
near  6co  of  a  much  admired  hop,  called  the  large 
■white  hop.  ITie  foil,  againft  appearances,  proved 
to  be  extremely  nnfuitable.  The  white  hop  in  five 
or  fix  years  fcarcely  gave  ten  pounds  weight  a  year. 
The  Famham,  few  as  the  plants  were,  gave  five 
times  as  much.  The  plants  of  the  former  w  ere  al- 
ways exceHlvely  rufty  or  mildewed :  thofe  of  the 
latter  were  much  lefs  io,  and  ripened  the  fruit 
twelve  days  fooner  than  the  former. 

The  following  method  of  brewing  is  compared 
with  the  old  or  common  method. 

A  Tripartite 


AND    BEER.  329 


A  Tripartite  Method  of  B reiving.* 

1.  Water  is  put  into  the  kettle,  divifion  A.  and 
heated. 

2.  The  malt  is  fpread  in  the  divifron  B. 


J' 


J.  The  hot  water  is  pumped  or  poured  over, 
from  A.  to  C.  where  it  fpreads  over  a  perforated 
bottom ;  and  falling  every  where  on  the  malt  in  B. 
waihes  out  its  fubftance,  through  another  perforat- 
ed bottom  into  A.  The  perforated  bottoms  aft 
moveable.  This  operation  is  repeated,  with  now 
and  then  flirring  up  the  grains,  and  then,  without 
ftirring  the  grains,  till  the  liquor  is  clear.  The  li- 
quor is  then  made  to  boil  bri/kly,  from  hence  it  is 
let  into  coolers. 

The  old  Method  of  Brewing. 

1.  The  kettle  is  filled  with  water;  which  is  then 
heated. 

2.  The  mafli  vat  is  charged  with  malt. 

3.  The  hot  water  is  removed  from  the  kettle  to 
the  raafli.     It  there  remains  forae  time,  and  then 

4.  The 

•  Tripartite,  becaufe  the  kettle  apparatus  is  worked  in 
tliree  divifions.  A  Swcdilli  method  of  brewing  in  camp,  af- 
forded me  tlie  hint  for  this  invention.  See  the  dimeniic;ns, 
&c.  in  the  Explanation  of  the  plates. 


35"^ 


DIET    IN 


4.  The  mafli  is  a  long  while  flirred  up  with  pad- 
dles :  it  ftands  fome  time  afterwards,  and  then 

5.  The  wort  is  let  out  very  flowly  into  the  ua- 
derback  or  vat :  a  lengthy  operation. 

6.  It  is  again  returned  to  the  kettle  and  boiled — 
and  thence  into  coolers. 

Mr.  M'Cauley,  in  Front  flreet,  Philadelphia, 
made  my  tripartite  copper ;  which  fee  in  plate  III. 
£g.  I. 

DIET  IN  RURAL  ECOJ^OMT. 

Count  Riuvjord  has  made  many  experiments  on 
diet ;  and  has  written  a  bock  recommending  the  befl 
choice  for  labourers.  His  book  is  not  now  in  my 
poiTefuon  :  but  as  Do£i:or  Lettfom  has  fince  publifhed 
on  the  fame  fubjecl:,  below  are  a  number  of  mcffes 
felected  from  his  book  of  "  Hints  defigned  to  pro- 
mote Beneficence,  Temperance  and  Medical  Sci- 
ence j"  publifhed  in  1797. 

Doctor  Letrfom  obferves,  in  general,  that  pies  are 
more  advantageous  than  roafting  or  boiling.  This 
he  illuftrares.  Of  mutton,  64  ounces  in  2.  pie  made 
with  24  ounces  of  wheat  flour,  and  eaten  with  Si- 
ounces  of  bread,  in  all  g6^  ounces,  dined  8  perfons 
fully  :  whilfl  60  ounces  of  mutton,  roasted  znd  eaten 

with 


RURAL    ECONOMY.  33I 

with  33  ounces  of  brciid,  In  all  93  ounces,  dined  only 
-5  of  the  fume  perfons. 

1.  IV^ilk  pottage  (thickened  milk)  he  fays,  is  more 
faUuary  than  tea  and  bread  and  butter  ;  and  made 
thus,  is  preferable  to  milk  alone  ;  equal  quantities  of 
milk  and  water,  are  boiled  up  with  a  little  oatmeal ; 
which  breaks  the  vifcidity  of  the  milk,  and  probably 
is  eafier  digefted  than  milk  alone.  Oatmeal  is  a 
warmer  nouriihment  than  wheat  flour,  and  agrees 
with  weak  flomachs. 

2.  Of  boiling  potatoes  he  fays,  in  Ireland  and  Lan- 
cafliire  potatoes  are  boiled  to  great  perfeftion,  and 
then  are  ufed  inftead  of  bread.     The  potatoes  being 
good,  are  to  be  nearly  all  of  the  fa?ne  fi%c.     The 
large  and  the  fmall  to  be  boiled  feparately.     Wa(h 
them  clean,  without  paring  or  fcraping.     Put  them 
in  a  pot  with  cold  water  \  not  fo  much  as  to  cover 
them,  becaufe  they  will  add  to  the  water  from  their 
own  juices.     If  large,  as  loon  as  the  boiling  begins, 
throw  in  fome  cold  water,  and  occafionally  repeat  it, 
till  they  are  boiled  through  to  the  centre  :  they  will 
otherwife  crack  and  burft  on  the  outfide,  whilft  the 
infide  will  not  be  enough.     Whilfl  boiling,  add  a  lit- 
tle fait.     The  Jlower  they  are  cooked  the  better. 
Pour  off  the  water   and  place  them  again  over  the 
fuc,  for  evaporating  their  moifture,  that  they  may 
become  dry  and  mealy.     Serve  up  with  the  Ikms  on. 

Steaminj: 


JJ- 


DI2T     IN 


Steaming  them  is  very  inferior  to  boiling  or  ftewing 
in  water,  as  above. 

3.  Potato  Pltdding.     Lctffom. 

12  ounces  of  potatoes,  boiled,   fkinned  and 

maflied 

I  do fuet 

I  do         milk,  that  is,  2  fpoonsful 

I  do cheefe.    Mix  all  together  with  boil- 

ifiZ  water  to  a  due  confidence.  Bake  it.  Inflead 
of  cheefe,  there  may  be  an  ounce  of  red-herring 
pounded  fine  in  a  mortar. 

4.  Potato  Bread.     Parmentier. 

Crufli  and  bruifc  potatoes  well,  together  with 
prepared  leaven  {jot  yeafl)  and  the  whole  flour  de- 
ilgned ;  (o  that  4  be  fiour,  4  potato.  Knead  all  up 
with  warm  water  added.  "When  the  dough  is  enough 
prepared,  place  it  in  the  oven  lefs  heated  iban  ufual 
7isrjhui  it  upfofoon  as  is  commoji  ;  but  leave  it  longer 
in  tbe  oven.  Without  thefe  precautions,  the  crust 
^ill  be  hard  and  fhort,  while  the  itifide  will  have  too 
miuh  jncisture,  and  not  be  foaked.*  When  potato^ 
are  to  be  mixed  zviih  dough  cf  fiour ^  they  are  to  be 
made  into  a  glutinous  pafle  ;  for  giving  tenacity  to 
the  fiour  of  grain.  A  fmall  f>ortion  of  ground  rice 
anfwers,  and  makes  it  eat  fhorter. 

5.  Fotah- 

*  See  Leitfom,  p.  404. 


RURAL     ECONOMY.  333 

5.  Potato  bread,  in  England.  A  /I^illet  of  pota- 
toes with  cold  water  is  hung  at  fome  diftance  over 
the  fire,  that  the  water  may  not  boil  till  the  potatoes 
become y^//.  Then  fkin,  mafli  and  mix  them  with 
their  weight  of  wheat  flour,  and  alfo  with  the  yeaft, 
fait  and  warm  water  wanted.  Knead  all  together. 
Lay  the  mafs  a  little  while  before  a  fire,  to  rife  ;  then 
bake  in  a  very  hot  oven  [Parmentier  in  the  preceding 
page  is  directly  contrary.]  Flour  of  rice  or  barley 
may  be  ufed  inftead  of  that  from  wheat. 

6.  Another  Englifti  mode  fays  :  after  long  boiling, 
peel,  fcle6l  the  mofl  mealy,  and  bruife  the  potatoes. 
To  take  oiFauy  bitternefs  of  the  yeaft,  a  little  bran, 
milk  and  fait  are  added  ;  and  after  (landing  an  hour 
thefe  are  run  through  a  hair  lieve. 

7.  Another  mode  is  given  by  the  Board  of  Agricul- 
ture.— It  diredls,  to  felecl  the  moft  mealy  fort,  and 
boil  and  ikin  them.  Break  and  ftrain  1 2  lb  potatoes 
through  a  very  coarfe  fieve  of  hair,  or  a  very  fine  one 
of  wire,  fo  as  to  reduce  the  pulp  as  near  as  pofGble 
to  a  flour.  Mix  this  well  with  2ott)  of  wheaten 
flour.  Make  and  fet  the  dough  of  this  mixture  ex- 
aftlyas  if  the  whole  were  wheat  flour.  This  quan- 
tity makes  9  loaves  of  5tt>  each,  in  dough  ;  or  when 
baked  about  two  hours,  421b  of  excellent  bread. 

Doftor  Foikcrgill  fays,  if  potato  bread  is  cut  be- 
fore it  is  a  day  old^it  will  not  appear  enough  baked  ; 

becaufc 


334 


DIET     IN 


becaufe  of  the  potato  moifture  [Parraentier's  mode 
in  the  preceding  page,  cures  this  by  baking  flowlyj. 
He  adds,  never  flice  potatoes  with  a  knife,  raw  or 
boiled  ;  but  break  and  mafh  with  the  hand  or  a  fpoon, 
otherwife  they  will  not  be  foft. 

Doctor  Lettfom  next  proceeds  to  give  the  befl 
foups  ;  according  to  Mr.  Juflice  Colquhcun* 

I.  Potato  Soup.     Colquhoun. 

Sieiv  5*  coarfefl  parts  of  beef  or  mutton,  in  lo 
quarts  of  water  till  half-done.  Add  a  quantity  of 
potatoes,  Jkinned,  and  fome  onions,  pepper  and  fait. 
Stir  frequently  and  boil  enough.  Bones  of  beef  ad- 
ded would  increafe  the  foup  in  richnefs  or  quantity. 

Mills. 

Eflimate  in  raills.t  5^  coarfebeef  at  60  mills  300 

Bones,  to  enrich  it,  50 

Potatoes  24ft>  or  4  a  bufliel  20 

Onions,  a  bunch  60 

Pepper  and  fait  60 


49.0 
It 

*  Some  of  die  receipts  fij  boil ;  others  JIcw  ;  others  again, 
Icil  over  ajlo-jufre.  Page  342,  fays,  "  iwcer  boil  foups  brj/ily  ; 
but  leave  them  long,  long  over  the  ^xo-tJimTTienng  rather  than 
boiling."  Doftor  Johnfon  fays, — "  It  is  material  that  fiupt 
be  cooked  in  chfe  ftew  pans  or  vefiels  that  will  icarcely  admit 
of  any  evaporation." 

\  Small  dealings,  are  conveniently  ctiarged  in  mi/Zr ;  or  In 
ctnts  and  mills,  10  mills  make  a  cent,  iod  cents  or  10  dimes 
u  dollar. 


RURAL    ECONOMY.  335 

It  gives  lo  quarts  foup,  meat  and  potatoes  :  and  dines 
ID  men,  at  nearly  5  cents. — A  red  herring  is  fuid  to 
be  a  good  fubftitute  for  onions,  pepper  and  fait. 
But  red  pepper  may  be  added.* 

II.  Barley  Broth.     Colquhoun. 

It  admits  of  a  mixture  of  almofl:  every  kind  of  gar- 
den vegetable  and  is  never  out  of  feafon.  Onions 
or  leeks  and  parfley  are  always  a  part  of  the  ingre- 
dients :  belides  which,  cabbage  or  greens,  turnips, 
carrots  and  peas  may  be  added.  A  tea-cup  of  bar- 
ley fuffices  for  a  large  family.  Pearl  barley  is  dearer, 
yet  not  fo  good  as  the  common  hujked  or  Scotch  drefTed 
barley.  Water  4  quarts,  beef  4  pounds  with  bones, 
barley  4  ounces  [Count  Rumford  fays  barley-meal 
is  better  than  whole  barley,  for  thickening  broth, 
and  making  it  more  nourifhing].  5/rTv'  all  together 
two  hours.  Then  add  the  herbs  cut  fmall,  and  fait. 
The  whole  then  boils  till  tender.  Skim  off  the  fat  or 
not,  as  you  like  it.  Onions  or  leeks  mud  not  be 
omitted. 

III. 

*  An  EngliOi  gentleman  aiTures  me  he  of:en  ate  of  a  plain 
pottage  or  foup  in  Switzerland,  which  was  very  agreeable  tr> 
him  ;  and  that  having  it  made  at  his  father's  on  his  retuni  to 
England,  the  family  liked  it  fo  well  that  they  often  had  it, 
though  fo  plain  and  fimple  as  to  be  made  only  oi potjtc-eijhinned, 
boUeJy  nuijljedup,  and  tbenjlewed  'with  fom^  butter  and  fait ;  with- 
out any  potherbs  orfpice :  and  yet  thefe  were  opulent  peopb, 
ufed  to  good  living.  It  is  a  good  jubftitutc  for  pea  fc:r> ;  -vvl 
made  ot  the  fame  confidence. 


33^  I>i£T    IN 

III.  A  plain  good  food,  ivith  very  little  meat  ;  and  as 
ivholcfome  as  can  be  obtained  from  ivheat  or  bar- 
ley.    Colquhoun. 

Cut  half  a  pound  of  beef,  mutton,  or  pork,  into 

fmall  pieces ;  add  half  a  pint  of  peas,  3  fliced  turnips, 
and  3  potatoes,  cut  very  fmall :  an  onion  or  two,  or 
leeks.  Put  to  them  fevcn  pints  of  water,  and  boil 
the  whole,  gently,  over  a  flow  fire  for  2i  hours. 
Thicken  with  a  quarter  pound  of  ground  rice,  and 
i-  pound  of  oat-meal  \ox  ^^^  of  oat-meal  or  barley- 
meal  without  rice).  Boil  \  hour  after  the  thicken- 
ing is  put  in  ;  ftirring  it  all  the  time.  Then  feafon 
with  fait  and  pepper,  or  ground  ginger.  x\s  only  a 
pint  will  be  lofl:  in  boiling,  it  is  a  meallfor  4  perfons ; 
and  will  cofl  2  cents  each  perfon. 

IV.  Cut  into  very  fmall  bits,  2^^  beef,  mutton,  or 
pork  out  of  the  tub  ;  or  hung  beef,  frefhened  in  wa- 
ter; and  put  them  in  a  pot  with  6  quarts  water.  Boil 
Jlow  near  three  hours :  or  rather  stew  till  tender. 
Add  4*  carrots  or  parfnips,  and  4^  turnips,  all 
fliced  finall.  Sometimes  inilead  of  them,  a  few  po- 
tatoes fliced  :  alfo  add  fome  greens,  cabbage,  cellery, 
fpinach,  parfley,  and  two  ounces  onions  or  leeks. 
Thicken  with  a  pint  of  oat-meal  (or  a  quart,  to  make 
it  very  thick).  Boil  all  well  together,  and  feafon  with 
pepper,  or  ground  ginger  and  fait.     It  will  ferve  a 

family 


RURAL    ECONOMY.  337 

family  of  fix,  for  a  day.    Or  it  may  be  thickened  with 
any  kind  of  meal ;  or  barley,  beans,  peas  or  rice. 

V.  Take  4lt>  beef,  onions  4 ft  turn'ps  2ft  rice  i^ft. 
Parlley,  favory,  thyme  of  each  a  large  handful ;  pep- 
per and  fait :  w-ater  17  quarts.  Cut  the  beef  into 
fliccs,  and  after  boiling  it  fome  time,  mince  it  fmall. 
The  turnips  and  onions  infufed,and  fweec  herbs  may 
be  minced  before  they  go  to  the  pot.  Boil  the 
whole  gcnth  together,  about  3  hours  on  :xj1o-j;  fire. 
Scarcely  two  quarts  wiil  be  wailed  in  boiling.  The 
rell  will  ferve  i8  perfons  for  one  meal.  Cod  3 
cents  each. 

"Where  fuel  is  fcarce,  the  materials  in  the  three 
above  receipts  may  be  ftewed  in  a  pot,  all  night  m 
an  oven  ;  and  will  next  day  require  but  a  quarter 
hour  boiling. 

VI.  Bake  in  an  earthen  pot,  a  {hank  of  beef  in  fix 
quarts  of  water,  with  a  pint  of  peas,  a  leek,  and 
four  or  five  turnips  fiiced. 

I.  Pottages,  by  Ccl.  Pjynicr. 

Officers   Mefs. 

Three  pounds  of  the  (licking  piece  of  beef,  or  a 
1-z.xi  of  a  fhiii,  or  any  coarfe  piece.     Eoil  it    m 

Y  eleven 


33S  DIET    IN 

eleven  quarts  of  water,  two  hours.  Then  add  a 
fjound  Scotch  barley ^  and  boil  it  four  hours  more,  in 
which  time  add  potatoes  fix  pounds,  ojiiojis  half  a 
pound,  and  fome  par/ley,  tbyme  or  favory,  pepper 
2ji6.falt,  with  other  vegetables,  and  half  a  pound 
of  bacon  may  be  added,  the  bacon  cut  into  fmall  bits. 
It  gives  three  gallons  of  pottage.  Boil  it  over  ■d.fivjj 
fire,  to  be  thick.  If  fatisfied  twenty  foldiers,  'with- 
out bread  ;  the  nature  of  the  food  not  requiring  any. 
Col.  Paynter  adds  that  the  men  in  the  barracks  liked 
it  very  much ;  and  the  oficers  introduced  it  into 
their  mefs,  and  found  it  excellent.  Its  coft  would 
be  30  cents ;   cr  15  mills  a  man. 


z.  A  prcparat'rcefcr  Puiagcs.     Faynier. 

It  may  be  applied  as  above,  or  be  eaten  in  mefs : 
an  excellent  diOi.  A  pound  of  Scotch  barley  is 
boiled,  and  draining  the  water  from  it,  i^fet  to  cool 
in  an  earthen  pan.  A  pound  of  bacon  is  boiled  in 
two  quarts  of  water.  A  few  minutes  before  it  Is 
i  iken  cff  the  fire,  put  in  the  boiled  barley,  when  it 
w  ill  imraediately  fall  to  pieces,  being  a  jelly  whilft 
cold,  and  -avV/  fuck  up  all  the  juices,  cf  the  bacon, 
nearly.  The  remaining  ijater  is  then  poured  off. 
A  few  omons  or  leek:  fhould  be  boiled  with  the  ba- 
con and  herbs.  Seafon  with  pepper  and  Ja'lt.  A 
pound  of  Scotch  barley  boiled  four  hours,  and  coaled 

in 


RURAL     ECONOMY.  339 

in  a  pan,  becomes  a  fort  of  jclley  ;  which  being  put 
into  boiling  ivater,  inftantly  falls  to  i;i<j!ces.  When 
the  pound  of  barky  is  boiled^  cooled,  and  coagulated y 
the  coaguium  weighs  four  pounds.  This  is  an  cxcel- 
leht  nourifhing  food,  feafoned  with  fugar  ;  or  made 
into  a  pottage. 

Mr.  Lcttfom  then  gives,  from  Docl:or  fohnfon  of 
Haflar  hofpital,  a  number  of  chofen  mciTes ;  the 
refult  of  experiments  on  diet,  made  at  the  indarice 
of  Admiral  Waldgrave,  in  1795. 

I.    A  Mess,  according  to  Dr.  fohnfon. 

Beef  lib,  potatoes  2lb,  Scotch  barley  ^^,  onions 
\Yb,  pepper  lud  fait.  Bacon  3  ounces.  Cofl  lo 
cents.  This,  fays  Doctor  Johnfon,  would  be  a 
dinner  and  fupper  for  three  men  ;  better  than  the 
common  meil'es  of  fat  bacon  and  cabbage,  with 
which  bread  and  beer  are  required.  If  one  fuch 
man  eats  a  pound  of  bacon  at  nine  pence  flerling  for 
his  dinner  and  fupper,  that  article  alone  is  equal  to 
what  might  fupport  three  men;  independent  of 
bread  and  beer.     Coft,  ^2)  ^^^i^^^  ^  m-:.)^,  or  3  c.  3m. 

II.  Mess.     Dr.  Johufcn. 

The  head  of  a  flieep,    barley  -*ft,  potatoes  3tb, 

cnior.s  'fti,  pepper  ?iX\d  fait,  cabbage,  turnips,  carrots. 

Water  11  pints.     Cofl;  16  cents.     Produce  6  quarts. 

Y  z  This 


34C  DIET     IN 

This  was  preferred  to  the  other,  for  richnefs  of 
flavor  and  tafle ;  owing  to  the  bon€s  in  the  head, 
which  were  broken  /mail  before  they  were  put  in  the 
flewpan.  It  makes  a  nioic  conifortable  dinner  for 
four  men.     Coil  40  mills  or  4.0  cents  a  meal. 

III.  Mlss.     Dr.  Johnfcn. 

Bacon  4ft>j  barley  ^'±,  onions,  pepper  and  fait. 
Coft  9  cents.  A  dinner  for  three  men,  needing  no 
bread.  ' 

IV.  Mess.     Dr.  Johnfon. 

An  ox  cheek,  barley  itb,  potatoes  6rt>,  pepper 
and  fait,  onions  i^.  Cabbage,  turnips,  carrots. 
Water  22  pints.  Cod  30  cents.  Produce  3  gal- 
lons.    A  meal  18.7  m.ills  or  ic.8/^m. 

This  colts  30  cents,  without  bacon ;  and  gives 
three  gallons  of  very  excellent  pottage,  for  8  men  at 
dinner  and  fupper  (perhaps  even  for  10  men).  It 
v^as  rich,  and  better  than  mj  other  pottages.  Ox 
cheek  feeras  to  have  the  preference  to  the  coarfe 
pieces  of  beef  commonly  chofen.  c^  In  all  ike  aboi-e 
cookery,  fays  Mr.  Johnfon,  a  very  clofe  ste^d;'pan^v;-^s 
ufed,  vfhlxch.  tm\it.Qd  fcarcely  any  cvaporaticn  :  a  ma- 
terial cu-curallance.  ?Ie  adds :  Thefe  diihes  are 
not  meant  to  be  continual ;  but  to  be  three  or  four 
days  in  the  week. 

V.    Mess. 


RURAL    ECONOMY.  34I 

V.  Mzss.     Dr,  Jchnfon. 

A  fliln  of  beef,  barley  ifr,  onions  ift,  potatoes 
6;b.  Cabbage,  carrots,  turnips,  fait  and  pepper. 
"Water  ii  quarts.  Cofl  28  cents.  Produce  three 
gallons.  Dinner  for  7  men.  Coil  40  ir.IlJs,  or 
4.0  cents  a  man. 

VI.  Mess.     Dr.  Jchnfon. 

Ox's  head  \.  barley  4!fc,  onions  ifr,  potatoes 
31b.  Cabbage,  carrots,  turnips.  Salt  and  pepper. 
Water  5  J-  quarts.  Produce  6  quarts.  Cod  16 
cents.  A  rich  and  high  flavored  pottage.  In  the 
laft  two  above  trials,  the  do(5lor  omitted  the  bacon  j 
bccaufe  the  flavor  of  it,  in  fome  other  inflances, 
was  too  predominant ;  and  it  is  a  needlefs  expenfe, 
Oa  the  whole  of  his  trials,  he  found  that  ox  cheek 
or  Jhin  beef  are  preferable  to  any  pieces  that  are 
ivithcut  bones.     See  Prifon  Diet. 

PoMPioN  Diet.     Doclor  Lettfcm. 

^The  fort  common  at  the  tables  of  the  people  of 
Maflfachufetts,  are  diftinguiihed  by  the  name  of 
"  the  winter,  or  long  nechcd  fquaj%.^*  They  weigh 
10  to  15.0,  This  fquafli  is  boiled  abuut  half  an 
hour  :  then  malhed  up  with  flour  or  dough.     They 

make 


342  DIET    IN 

make  "  bread,  puddings,  and  mcft  excellent  pan- 
cakes; by  mixlD?  certain  proportions  of  this  vege- 
table, previouily  boiled,  with  flour.  But  mofl 
commoniy,  they  are  eaten  ftewed,  the  ikin  being 
firft  taken  o%  and  the  entrails  taken  out.  It  is  al- 
niofl:  a  /landing  diih  at  their  tables ;  even  amongft 
the  moil  opulent.'* 

General  Cautions  in  Country  Cookery, 

So'ups  are  never  to  be  filled  cp  or  have  even  a  drop 
of  water,  hot  nor  cold,  added  :  and  are  never  to 
boil  brijkly.  They  are  to  be  k)ng,  long  over  the  fire, 
fimmering  rather  than  boiling.  And  all  foups  hav- 
ing roots  or  herbs,  are  to  have  the  meat  laid  on  the 
bottom  of  the  pan,  with  a  good  lump  of  butter. 
The  herbs  and  roots  being  cut  fmall  are  laid  on  the 
meat.  It  is  then  covered  ckfe  and  fet  on  a  veryjlow 
fre.  This  draws  out  all  the  virtue  of  the  roots  and 
herbs,  and  turns  out  a  good  gravy ^  with  a  fine 
favour^  from  what  it  would  be  if  the  water  was 
put  in  at  nxil.  When  the  gravy  is  almofl  dried  up, 
theyi  fill  the  pan  with  water :  and  when  it  begins  to 
boil,  take  off  the  fat. — Never  boil  fiih ;  but  only 
fimmcr,  till  enough. — Beef  ^mck  boiled,  is  thereby 
hardened  :  Jimmer  or  flov/  boil  it,  in  not  too  much 
water. — Veal  and  poultry  are  to  be  dufted  with 
flour,  and  put  into  the  keltle  in  cold  -ivater.  Cover 
arrd  boil  Jlcw  as  poffible,   /kimmicg  the  water  clean. 

It 


RURAL    ECONOMY.  34j 

It  is  the  worft  of  faults,  to  boil  any  meat  fad.— 
In  baking  pies,  a  quick  oven  -xcll  chfcd^  prevents 
falling  of  the  cruft. 

Wafteful  or  indolent  people  overlook  calculation  j 
and  too  many  may  think  but  little  of  the  wholefome 
and  nourifhing  qualities  of  food.  But  here  are  well 
informed  and  moft  actively  good  men,  recommending 
to  the  world  the  refults  of  much  inquiry  and  expe- 
rience tlierein.  However  lightly  may  be  thought 
of  a  cent  on  a  fmgle  meal  of  visuals,  when  the  fum 
of  a  year's  meals  is  calcular.ed,,  for  a  perfon,  a  fami- 
ly, and  a  nation,  it  becomes  flriking  and  important. 
A  cent  for  a  «eal,  amounts  to  three  cents  a  day. 

*  Dol. 

One  perfon,  at  3  cents  a  day,  faves 

in  the  year  .  •  •  ^ ' 

One  family  of  5  perfons     .  •  '        S':> 

A  nation   of  5    millions  of  people     55,000,000 

The  cent  thus  faved  by  the  good  houfe-wife,  on 

every  plentiful  meal  of  the  zuholefomest  food,  would 

be  fufficient  for  maintaining  the  mod  defperate  war 

by  the  freemen  of  America,    in  defence  of  their 

country,  againft  the  wiles  and  the  violences  ot 

the  Great  enlightened  world  ! 

GVPSUM 


344  GYPSUM     MANURE. 


GTPSUM  MANURE. 


]^izz  Prcn  V.  rote  circular  letters  to  feveral  ex- 
'Der:—':::,  ::.r~=-;-  zi  PeriEiyivaDia,  containing  quef- 
:   ■ :  vLich  they  g^ve  him  anfwers : 
_.        ;:ome  whereof,  follows.* 

Queftion  ift.  How  long  have  you  ufed  the  plafter  ? 


Anfwcr,  by  Mr.  West 

11  years 

Hanman 

12 

Price 

6 

Hand 

lO 

Curwen 

"* 

Sellers 

Duffield 

13 

Roberts 

7 

Peters 

25 

QueftioQ  2d.     In  what  flate  was  your  land  when 
you  began  the  ufc  of  it  ? 

Anfwcr,  by  Mr.  West :  tired  down. 

Hannum :  Virgin  foil  and  old  land ;   good 
bad  and  indifferent. 

Price : 

*  "his:.  Cljl  has  the  pamtJilet  at  large,  for  file  ;  in  which 
the  aniwers  are  fbOf  given,  together  with  Mr.  Petert*i  obfer- 
ratkms.    And  I  have  their  penniflkm  to  publiih  this  epitome. 


GYPSUM     MANURE.  345 

Price :  Worn  out ;  but  had  been  limed. 

Hand:  Exhaufted. 

Cunven :   Had  been   limed  and    dunged, 

after  being  exhaufled. 
Sellers:  Poor. 

Duffield :  Had  been  in  poor  timothy. 
Peters :  Worn  out. 


Queftion  3d.  What  quantity  per  acre  have  you  ge- 
nerally ufed  ? 

Anfwer,  by  Mr.  West :  4 1  to  3  bulhels. 
Hannum  .•  i  to  5 
Price  ;  I  to  2 
Hand ;  3  to  4 

Cur\ven  :  i  began  with  6  and  funk  to  i 
Sellers  :  2r  began  with  4  or  5 
Ditffield:  3  to  5  if  fandy  3.     If  loamy  more. 
Roberts  :  1 1^  to  4 
Peters  .-3. 

Queftion  4th.  What  foils  are  the  moft  proper  for  this 
manure  ? 

Anf.  by  Mr.  West :  Warm,  kind,  loamy. 
Hannum  :  High  ground,  and  fandy  foils. 
Price:  High,  warm,  dry,  gravelly  or  loamy. 
Curzven  :  Dry  loam  ;   better  on  hilly  than  level 
land. 

Sellers: 


346  GYPSUM    MAKURE. 

Sellers :  Too  light  and  fandy  or  clay  are  unfa- 
vourable :  loam  is  befl. 

Bufficld :  Sandy  or  light  loam. 

Roberts :  The  fame ;  and  watered  meadows. 
(Sloping  is  meant.) 

Peters  :  Light  dry  and  fandy  or  loamy. 

Queflion  5th.  Have  you  repeated  the  application  of 
it  with  or  withour  plowing  ?  At  what  intervals, 
and  with  what  efie£l  ? 

Anf.  by  Mr.  West.  They  have  a  good  eiFeft.     It  fol- 
lows lime  equal  to  any  manure. 

Hannum.  With  and  without  plowing,  with  very 
eood  eSecl:. 

Price.  The  like  anfwer,  with  many  inftances  of 
good  effefts. 

Hand,  With  good  effefl  5  though  with  lefs  at  the 
laft. 

Cur\uen.  On  meadow  and  clover  every  other 
year,  with  good  effect. 

Sellers.  Sufpe<5ls  the  good  efFefts  will  be  lefs  on  a 
frequent  application,  as  of  any  other  manure 
often  repeated.  Improvement  of  land  may  be 
fimilar  to  that  of  animal  improvement,  which 
is  better  promoted  by  a  change  of  nutriment, 
than  by  being  confined  to  any  one  kind. 

Dufleld.  Good  on  grafs  every  3d  or  4th  year, 
without  plowing :  on  maize  with  plowing. 

Peters. 


GYPSUM    MANURE.  ^47 

Peters.  Good  with  and  without  plowing. 

CJueflion  6th.  In  confeqaence  do  you  find  that  it  ren- 
ders the  earth  fteril  after  its  ufeful  effefts  are  eone? 

Anf.  by  Mr.  West.  Something  of  flerility  it  creates  in 
five  or  fix  years  by  mowing.* 

Hannum.  Its  ufefal  effects  have  not  ceafed  ;  ap- 
plying one^ufliel  a  year. 

Price.  Never  any  bad  effects ;  and  the  good  ceafes 
not. 

Hand.  Quite  contrary  to  flerility. 

Curwen.  Quite  the  reverfe  of  flerility.  No  kind 
of  manure  gives  flerility. 

Sellers.  Have  not  obferved  any  flerility. 

Duffield.  Not  in  the  leaft  degree. 

Peters.  No  greater  degree  of  flerility  after  plaf- 
ter  than  after  dunij. 

Queflion  7th.  To  what  produfts  can  it  be  befl  ap- 
plied ?  grain  and  what  kinds  ?  graffes  and  what 
kinds  ? 

Anf.  by  Mr.  West.  It  is  befl  adapted  to  grafs  and 
every  kind  of  fumraer  grain. 

Hannum, 

*  Not  the  manure,  but  the  many  crops  taken  off,  weaken  the 
foil ;  and  tlie  ibur  or  five  years  of  lay,  give  the  foil  time  to  fet- 
tle, become  hardened  and  untillcd  :  and  moreover,  fibrous 
rooted  plants  take  place  and  add  to  the  milchief. 


§4^  GYPSUM     MAKURE* 

Hannum.  BeneSciaiiy  to  the  production  of  wheat, 
rye, barley,  Indian-corn,  buckwheat,  f>eas,  f>o- 
tatoes,  cabbage,  clover,  and  all  other  gralTes 
common  amongftus. 

Price,  I  have  found  it  more  beneficially  applied 
to  Indian  com  than  any  other  grain,  having 
never  failed,  except  in  two  inftances  :  on^  was 
in  a  field  a  third  part  whereof  had  buckwheat 
in  the  year  before.  A  row  of  com  was  left 
unplaflered,  which  run  acrofs  the  frefh  broken 
up  land  and  the  buckwheat  ground.  In  the 
latter  no  ei±e£l  whatever  was  perceptible  that 
the  plafter  had  on  it.  In  the  freih  broken  up 
land  the  crop  was  very  good ;  more  than 
double  the  quantity  where  it  was  plaitered  than 
in  the  row  that  was  not.  The  other  inllance 
W'as  in  2.Jin£  mellow  rich  piece  of  land  that  bad 
been  well  manured  the  year  before ;  from 
which  had  been  taken  a  good  crop  of  potatoes 
and  pompions.  Three  rows  were  left  nnplaf- 
tered :  but  no  difference  could  be  feen  be- 
tween them  and  the  others,  where  had  been 
fown  two  buihels  per  acre.  The  piece  was 
fown  the  fpring  following  with  barley  and 
clover  feed,  and  the  plafter  that  had  been  put 
upon  the  com  without  any  advantage,  had  a 
great  efieft  upon  the  clover,  which  was  much 
better  than  where  the  three  rows  were  omit- 
ted.    The  effects  of  the  plafler  here,  as  well 

as 


GYPSUM     MANURE.  349 

as  in  many  other  inftances  where  it  has  been 
apphed  to  Indian  corn  in  mellow  /and  without 
effect,  is,  he  fays,  myilerious  in  its  operations. 
It  has  never  had  any  effedl:  (when  lirft  applied) 
on  any  other  grain  except  buckwheat,  when 
fowed  on  frefli  broken  up  land.* 

Hand.  Oats  and  maize  feed  wetted  and  dufied 
with  it  before  fown,  is  very  good.  With 
lime  equal  to  3  or  4  times  the  quantity  put  on 
the  corn  after  it  is  up. 

Curzuen.  Bell  on  red  clover,  and  is  good  on 
white  clover  and  mixt  grafles.  It  enlarges  the 
plant  of  maize  more  than  the  produft  of  the 
corn.     Is  very  trifling  on  wheat  and  rye.f 

Sellers.  All  graffes,  efpecially  the  clovers. 

Duffield. 

*  MeHcw  foils  raoft  readily  imbibe  and  retain  mo'iflure  ;  and 
therefore  have  ]efs  need  of  the  attradion  of  moifture  by  the 
acid  and  calcarious  matter  of  gypfum.  There  is  humidity  in 
the  drieft  common  air  that  comes  in  contact  with  the  foil ;  and 
this  air  is  never  quiefcent.  The  cultivation  given  to  maize 
cleans  and  mcllov.'s  the  foil.  Buckwheat  is  fown  on  ground 
fcratched  over  or  very  imperfcftly  tilled,  and  fo  the  ground  is 
not  mill(rjj  ;  and  there  the  gypfum  is  ufeful  in  coUeding  and  re- 
taining mo'ijlurcy  which  the  fcratched  half  tilled  ground  cannot 
alone. 

'  f  If  It  enlarges  tlie  plant,  it  fo  far  promotes  its  condition 
for  yielding  much  com  :  but  untimely  plowing  and  breiking 
the  roots,  and  great  drought  or  c.<ceirive  rains  afterwards 
would  Itorten  tlie  crop. 


350  GYPSUM     MANURE. 

Duffield.  GraiTes  of  a.11  kinds  and  maize,  immedi- 
ate.    All  other  grain  the  next  year. 

Peters.  Leguminous  plants,  buckwheat,  flax, 
hemp,  rape  and  other  plants  producing  oil. 
Garden  plants,  fruit  trees,  maize,  turnips :  oats 
and  barley  feed  wetted  and  covered  with  plaf- 
ter  dud.  Beft  on  red  clover.  Winter  grain, 
oats  and  barley  are  not  benefitted  by  top  drefT- 
ing  with  plafter  duft. 

Queflion  8th.     When  is  the  beft  time  to  fcatter  it  ? 

Anf.  by  Mr.  West,    The  fpring  when  vegetation  is 

abroad. 
Hanfium :  ift  March  if  free  from  froft,  to  the  ift 

of  May. 
Price :  Soon  after  clover  comes  up,  and  repeat 

it  foon  as  vegetation  takes  place.     On  Indian 

corn  inftantly  after  the  firft  harrowing  and 

moulding. 
Hand:  In  April,  or  June  on  m.owing  the  firll 

crop. 
Curiven  :  At  any  feafon  :  beft  w^hen  vegetation 

approaches  rapidly  in  the  fpring  ;  or  foon  after 

mowing  the  firft  crop. 
Sellers :  The  various  times  in  which  it  w'as  fcat- 

tered,  prove  equally  good. 
Duffield :  Clover  being  fown  w  ith  oats  or  barley, 

ftrew  it  as  thefe  grains  are  taken  off  j  which 

gives 


GYPSUM     MANURE.  3^1 

gives  a  good  growih  to  the  clover  before  win- 
ter fets  in.  On  ii  fward,  Itrew  it  at  any  time ; 
and  on  Indian  corn  as  fo6n  as  it  is  up  j  giving 
three  or  four  bufliels  an  acre,  over  the  whole 
ground. 
Peters  :  If  flrewed  in  the  fall,  and  a  dry  frofly 
winter  fucceeds,  much  of  the  plafler  is  blown 
away.  He  found  it  anfvver  well  fown  from 
beginning  of  February  to  the  middle  of  April, 
in  milly  weather.* 

Quefliion  9th.     What  is  the  greatefl:  produ<51:  of  grafs 
per  acre,  you  have  known  by  means  of  plafler  ? 

Anf.  by  Mr.  West :  Equal  to  any  ever  fcen.  Would 
feed  as  many  cattle  as  acres. 
Hannian  :  Three  tons  from  land  really  poor. 
Price :  Land  manured  and  afterwards  plaftered 
two  crops  (cuttings)  gave  of  clover  4^  tons  an 
acre :  and  poor  unmanured  land  no^  likely  to 
give  half  a  ton,  frequently  gave  i '-  or  2  tons. 

Hand : 

*  •'  In  many  parts  of  SnuUzerland  I  have  {Qcngypfumy  or  the 
parget  ilone,  ulcd  witli  uncommon  fuccefs.  Reduced  to  a 
powder  it  hjirewedon  the  lark/,  always  ieffre  the  your.^  gf"f^  ^^" 
ghis  tojhoot ;  otherwlfe,  attached  to  the  blades  ofgrafs,  the 
cattle  might  fwallow  it  with  the  grafs,  and  its  vifcous  filmy 
particles  prove  injurious  to  the  cattle."  Obferva.  on  Dcnm. 
&c.  p.  380. 


^S^  GYPSUM    MANURE. 

Hand :  Three  and  fix-tenths  tons,  and  2i  tons 
frequently  :  never  lefs  than  i^  tons. 

Curu-en :  The  firft  crop  2  tons ;  the  fecond  crop, 
nearly  one  ton  ;  the  tlurd  rcierved  for  feed. 
Without  plafter  this  ground  would  not  yield 
-1  of  the  whole  quantity. 

Sellers  :  Before  the  ufe  of  plailer,  little  of  pailure 
was  given  fcarcely  enough  to  fatten  cattle  for 
the  family  ufe.  But  for  feveral  years  back 
(with  the  plafter  appHed)  40  to  50  are  fatten- 
ed annually  ;  befides  mowing  from  the  fields, 
hay  enough  for  a  team,  family  horfes,  and  20 
cattle. 

Duffield:  Three  tons  of  hay. 

Peters  :  Five  tons  an  acre,  at  two  cuttings. 

Oueftion  icth.   Have  you  ever  ufed  it  with  other 
manure,  and  what  ?  and  the  effects  if  any  fuperior 

to  the  plafter  alone  ? 

Anf.  by  Mr.  JVest :  Never  ufed  of  it  with  other  ma- 
nure. 
Hannum  :  Yes :  the  land  will  in  lefs  time  be  much 
more  productive.  I  have  not  found  my  land 
in  good  heart,  in  lefs  than  three  years  with 
plafter  only.* 

Price: 

*  A  manuring  with  Jung  and  a  manuring  with  plajlery  are 
^  two  to  one  ;  t-xo  manur'ings.  Whether  the  plafter  alone  will 
give  good  hsart  to  the  kcd  in  one  or  in  three  years  will  de- 


GYPSUM     MANURE. 


35S 


Price :  I  have  put  it  on  after  lime  arid  dung  fre- 
quently, and  have  always  found  the  greatelT: 
difference  in  the  effe6V,  where  it  has  been  put 
on  entirely  ahne^  both  on  clover  and  Indian 
corn.  Where  the  manure  has  been  put  the  crop 
has  been  the  greatest,  but  their  operations  are 
entirely  independent  of  each  other.* 

Hand:  No  more  grafs  is  produced  from  his  lands 
previouQy  manured  for  other  crops,  than  from 
thofe  which  were  not  fo  manured,  although  an 
equal  proportion  of  plafter  and  grafs  feed  v/ere 
fown  on  each  :  except  in  one  inllance,  where 
afhes  were  fown  on  the  plafter  a  few  days 
after  it.    < 

Cur^juen  :  He  never  mixed  it  with  manure  previ- 
ous to  putting  it  on  the  ground,  but  gene- 
rally ufed  it  on  ground  limed  or  dunged  or 
both  not  long  before,  and  found  its  effects  in 
a  great  degree  proportionate  to  the  manure  in 
the  ground  ;  though  on  ground  exhaufted  and 
never  manured,  the  effeft  was  confiderablcf 
Z  Peters  : 

pend  on  the  quantity  and  the  quality  of  the  phifter  ;  and  pro- 
bably, other  circumllanccs. 

*  Do  dung  and  plafter  improreeach  other's  powers  ?  How 
does  this  appear  ?  Thery  indeed  ajfi/i  the  foil,  as  two  to  one  ; 
and  plafter  +  dung  -H  lime  =  3  m^murings. 

t  When  it  don't  follow  dung  or  lime  cr  o±cr  manure,  it  aifti 
alone — an  unit,  without  addition  or  aid.  ^^'hen  gypfjm  Ibl- 
lows  them,  then  the  maaurings  are  tripled. 


354  GYPSUM    MANURE. 

Peters  :  lands  Hmed  irefh  and  fome  exhaulled  are 
all  plaflered,  and  there  is  no  ditlerence  unfa- 
.  vourable  to  the  limed. 

Queflion  nth.  Is  there  any  difference  between  the 
European  and  the  American  plafter  ? 

Anf.  by  Mr.  Hannum  :  No  difference. 

Price :  None  in  the  effects  upon  grafs  or  grain  : 
but  the  European  is  eafieft  manufatlured,  and 
the  American  is  found  to  make  the  ftrongeft 
cement. 

Sellers  :  The  American  is  beff. 

D II fie  Id :  Can  diicover  no  difference. 

Peters  :  The  European  generally  befl :  but  has 
ufed  of  the  Nova  Scotia  plafter  to  equal  ad- 
vantage. 

Queflion  1 2th.    Its  duration: 

Anf.  by  Mr.  West :  The  product  for  five  years,  mow- 
ed twice  a  year,  and  the  third  plaftered,  is 
more  than  can  be  produced  from  dung. 
Hand:  In  one  inilance  he  mowed  the  fame 
ground  four  years  fuccelEvely  after  four 
bulhels  of  plafter  per  acre  had  been  applied  ; 
but'found  that  the  blue  grafs  generally  begins 
to  appear  the  third  year :  therefore  he  wifhes 

to 


GYPSUM     MANURE.  ^^$ 

to  mow  or  pafture  two  years  only,  and  then 
plough  again. 

Curwen :  With  him  it  has  not  been  uniform. 
Whether  it  depends  on  the  quantity  applied, 
the  nature  of  the  foil,  the  difference  in  feafons, 
or  the  goodnefs  of  the  pJafter,  he  cannot  fay : 
but  it  fometimes  fails  the  fecond  year  ;  fome- 
times  lafls  four  or  five,  and  where  put  on  the 
hills  of  Indian  corn  and  afterwards  mixt  with 
the  foil  by  plowing,  the  effe^bs  have  been  vi- 
fible  for  fix  years,  and  continue  the  fame  length 
of  time  on  an  exhaufled  foil  never  manured. 

Diiffield :  Its  effects  are  perceivable  for  four  or 
five  years. 

Peters :  Has  had  benefit  from  one  drefling  of 
three  or  four  bufhels  to  the  acre,  for  five  or 
fix  years,  gradually  decreaiing  in  its  powers. 
Has  heai'd  of  fome  who  fov»'ed  it  frequently, 
and  in  fmall  quantities,  and  obtained  good 
crops  of  grafs  for  twelve  years  and  upwards. 


For  fome  years  of  gypfum  being  firft  ufed  as  a  ma- 
nure in  America,  it  was  ground  down  to  meafure 
only  about  20  bufliels  a  ton.  It  now  is  made  io 
meafure  twenty-four  or  twenty-five  bufiiels ;  which 
Mr.  Peters*s  experience  condemns.  He  fays  20 
bufliels  a  ton  is  to  be  preferred  by  the  farmer ;  for 
that  v.hcn  too  fine,  it  flics  hway  ia  flrewing,  and  is 

Z  2  not 


356  A    STATE     SOCIETY 

not  fo  donible  as  the  coarfer.     The  miller  who  fells 
plaftcr  gains  by  its  being  made  very  fine. 

We  have,  fays  Mr.  Perers,  a  fimple  mode  of  trying 
the  quality  of  plafter.  A  quantity  of  the  povrder, 
when  heated  in  a  dry  pot  over  a  bre.  emits  a  ful- 
phoreous  finell.  If  the  ebullition  is  coniiderable,  it 
is  good :  if  it  be  fmail,  it  is  indifferent :  if  it  remiias 
an  inert  mafs.  like  fand,  it  is  worthlefe. 


A  Propofdl for  a  State  Society,  for  promoting  Agricul- 
ture :  and  that  the  Education  tf  Toutb  Jhoidd  direcl 
them  to  a  Knowledge  of  the  Art,  at  the  time  tbej  are 
acquiring  other  ufeful  Knowledge,  fuitable  to  agri- 
cultural Citizens. 

A:  :.  S;:;:*:!  -:::"--   -'  :':.-  Phi:if;'r^/-    ^rricty 

AGREED,  That  Mr.  Bordley,  Mi.  Clymer, 
IMr-  Pc:e-:  : .i:  7  7:.  ?'  '  '  .  be  a  Committee  to 
prep-re  O^  ""iblifhing  a  State 

Socir     :  :    .le  P.'-.  ure ;  connecting 

with  it  the  Educatisn  of  .  .s^  Knowledge  of 

th2Lt  moil  important  Art,  v:    ;   :   -      reacquiring 
other  ufefnl  KnszvL.  ,  for  the  agricultural 

Cithern  of  the  State . 

And 


OF    AGRICULTURE.  557 

And  a  Petition  to  the  Legiflature,  with  a  view  to 
obtain  an  Aft  of  Incorporation. 

At  a  Special  Meeting  of  the  Society,  Jan.  28,  1794. 

The  Committee  appointed  at  the  laft  Meeting  to 
prepare  Outhnes  of  a  Plan  for  eftablilhing  a  State 
Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Agricuhiire,  and  a  Pe- 
tition to  the  Legiflature  for  an  Aft  of  Incorporation, 
made  report.  The  Report  was  adopted.  The 
fame  Committee  are  now  requefted  to  fign  the  Peti- 
tion, prefent  it  to  the  Legiflature,  and  attend  the 
Committee  thereof  which  may  be  appointed  to  con- 
fer with  them  on  the  fubjeft. 

To  the  Senate  and  Houfe  of  Reprefentatives  of 
the  Commonwealth  of  Pennfylvania. 

The  Philadelphia  Society  for  Promoting  i^gricul- 
ture,  beg  leave  to  reprefent : 

THAT  finding  the  important  objeft  of  their  afTo- 
ciation  not  to  be  fufficiently  attained  on  the  limited 
plan,  and  by  the  means  hitherto  purfucd,  they  are 
deflrous  of  promoting  an  eflablifliment  on  a  broad  and 
permanent  baCs,  which  may  afford  more  certain 
profpefts  of  advancing  the  interefts  of  agriculture. 
They  alfo  conceive  that  the  acquiring  a  knowledge 
of  it  may  be  combined  with  the  education  which  13 

prafticable 


35^  -^'    STATE    SOCIETY 

prafticabk  and  moft  ufeful  for  the  great  body  of  ci- 
tizens. 

To  Ihew  wjiat  in  their  opinion  may,  in  procefs  of 
time,  be  accomplilhed,  they  take  the  liberty  of  pre- 
fenting  to  the  view  of  the  legiflature,  the  annexed 
Outlines  of  a  Plan  for  eflabliihing  a  State  Society  of 
Agriculture  in  Pcnnfyhania,  which  fhall  embrace  the 
aforementioned  objects. 

They  pray  that  a  committee  of  the  legiilature  may 
be  appointed  to  confer  with  a  committee  of  the  So- 
ciety on  the  fubject ;  and,  as  the  neceflary  means  of 
conductin'Tf  the  execution  of  the  plan,  that  an  act  of 
incorporation  may  be  granted  to  the  perfons  whofe 
names  fhall  be  prefented  for  that  purpofe. 

The  above,  with  the  Outlines,  was  prefented  to 
the  legiflature,  and  a  conference  was  held  as  propof- 
ed  ;  but  the  proceedings  were  laid  on  the  table,  and 
nothing  more  was  done. 

OUTLINES  OF  A  PLAN 

For  EsiahlifrAng  a  State  Society  of  J gri culture  in  Penn- 
fylvania* 

I.  The  legiflature  to  be  applied  to  for  an  act  of 
incorporation  of  the  fociety,  which  is  to  confift  of  ci- 
tizens 
•  Brought  into  the  coimnittee  by  Mr.  Peters. 


OP    AGRICULTURE.  359 

tizens  of  the  ftate,  as  generally  dlfperfed  throughout 
the  fame  as  polTible.  In  the  firfi;  inftance,  the  fociety 
to  be  compofed  of  fuch  perfons  as  may  be  named,  and 
thefe  to  be  verted  with  authority  to  make  rules  for 
admiffion  of  other  members,  and  by-laws  for  the  go- 
vernment of  the  fociety,  as  ufual  in  fimilar  cafes. 
Honorary  members  to  be  admitted  according  to  rules 
to  be  eftabliihed,  and  thefe  may  be  of  any  (late  or 
country. 

2.  The  organization  of  the  fociety  fhall  be  fo 
formed,  that  the  bufmefs  thereof  may  be  done  by  a 
few,  who  will  be  refponfible  to  the  body  of  the  fo- 
ciety, in  fuch  manner  as  their  by-laws  fliall  direft. 

3.  The  governor  of  the  ftate,  the  fpeakers  of  the 
houfes  of  the  legiflaturc,  and  the  chief  juflice  for  the 
time  being,  to  be  the  vifitors  of  the  corporation. 
The  tranfaftions  of  the  aftlve  members,  i.  e.  ihofe 
entrufted  with  the  monies  and  affairs  of  the  fociety, 
by  whatever  name  or  defcrlption  they  may  be  defig- 
nated,  and  all  by-laws  and  regulations,  to  be  fubmit- 
ted  to  the  vifitors ;  to  the  end  that  the  fame  may  be 
fo  conduced  and  eftabliflied  as  not  to  prejudice  the 
interefls  of  the  corporation,  or  interfere  with  or  op- 
pofe  the  conditution  and  laws  of  the  ftate.  The  vifi- 
tors will  alfo  judge  of  the  objects  of  the  fociety,  and 
perceive  whether  or  not  they  are  calculated  to  pro- 
more  the  ends  of  its  inftitution.     Reports  may  by 

them 


3^0  A    STATE  SOCIETY 

them  be  made  annually  to  the  leglflature.  Thefc 
"will  be  ufeful,  as  they  will  exhibit,  in  a  comprehen- 
iive  view,  the  flate  of  agriculture  throughout  the 
commonwealfh,  and  give  an  opportunity  to  the  le- 
glflature of  being  informed  on  afubject  fo  important 
to  the  profperity  of  the  country,  both  as  it  relates  to 
political  oeconomy  and  the  individual  happinefs  of  the 
people.  The  legiflature  will  perceive,  from  their 
reports,  when  and  in  what  manner  they  may  lend 
their  alSftance  to  forward  this  primary  object :  Whe- 
ther by  endowing  profeflbrfliips,  to  be  annexed  to 
the  univerlity  of  Pennfylvania  and  the  college  of 
Carlifle,  and  other  feminaries  of  learning,  for  the 
purpofe  of  teaching  the  chemical,  philofophical  and 
elementary  parts  of  the  theory  of  agriculture  :  Or 
by  adding  to  the  funds  of  the  fociety,  increafe  their 
ability  to  propagate  a  knowledge  of  the  fubjefi:,  and 
Simulate,  by  premiums  and  other  incentives,  the  ex- 
ertions of  the  agricultural  citizens  :  Or  whether  by 
a  combination  of  ihefe  means  the  welfare  of  the  flate 
may  be  more  efFeftually  promoted. 

4.  Though  it  will  be  mod  convenient  to  make  the 
repoiitory  of  the  information  of  the  fociety,  and  the 
office  or  place  of  tranfacting  its  bufmefs,  at  Philadel- 
phia ;  yet  it  is  intended  that  the  fociety  fhall  be  ren- 
dered active  in  every  part  of  the  ftatc.  To  effect 
this,  there  fhould  be  county  focieties  eftabliflied,  or- 
ganized as  each  fhall  think  proper.     In  union  with, 

or 


OF     AGRICULTURE.  361 

or  as  parts  thereof,  there  may  be  agricultural  meet* 
ings  or  eftablifliments,  at  the  u  ill  of  thofe  who  com- 
pofe  them,  in  one  or  more  townlhips  of  a  county. 
Thefe  may  correfpond  with  the  county  focieties,  and 
the  latter  may  annually  inform  the  fociety  of  the  (late 
(of  which  the  lefs  focieties  may  be  confidered  as 
branches)  of  all  the  material  tranfa^lions  of  their  re- 
fpe^tive  focieties.  Societies  already  formed  may  re- 
main as  they  are.  They  may,  at  their  option,  cor- 
refpond direiflly  with  the  ftate  fociety,  or  through 
the  fociety  of  the  county  in  which  they  meet,  as  fhall 
be  found  raoft  convenient  and  agreeable  to  them. 
This  will  bind  up  together  all  the  information  and 
bufinefs  relating  to  the  fubjeft.  It  will  give  an  op- 
portunity to  the  fociety  of  the  flate,  to  fee  where 
their  afliftance  is  moft  neceffary,  and  afford  a  facility 
of  diffufing  agricultural  knowledge.  The  premiums, 
books  and  other  articles,  at  the  difpofal  of  the  fociety, 
may  pafs  through  the  hands  of  the  county  or  other 
focieties,  for  many  purpofes  ;  and  they  can  judge  on 
the  fpot,  of  the  pretenfions  of  the  claimants.  The 
county  fchoolmafters  may  be  the  fecretaries  of  the 
county  focieties  ;  and  the  fchool  houfcs  the  places  of 
meeting  and  the  repofitories  of  their  tranfa^lions, 
models,  &c.  The  legiflature  may  enjoin  on  thefc 
fchool-mafters,  the  combination  of  the  fubjecl  of  agri- 
culture with  the  other  parts  of  education.  This 
may  be  eafily  cffefled,  by  introducing,  as  fchool 
books,  thofe  on  this  fubjcifl ;  and  thereby  making  it 

fauiiliar 


^62  A    STATE     SOCIETV^ 

familiar  to  their  pupils.  Thefe  ■will  be  gaining  3f 
knowledge  of  thebuiinefs  they  are  deftined  to  follow, 
while  they  are  taught  the  elementary  parts  of  their 
education.  Books  thus  profitable  to  them  in  the 
common  affairs  of  life,  may  be  fubftituted  for  fome 
of  thofe  now  ufcd  ;  and  they  can  ealily  be  obtained. 
Selections  from  the  bed  writers  on  hufbandry  may 
be  made  by  the  fociety.  The  eifays  of  our  own  ex- 
pcrimentalids  or  theorifls,  and  the  proceedings  ol 
the  fociety,  will  alfo  afford  information  ;  and  as  many 
of  thefe  will,  no  doubt,  be  good  models  of  compofi- 
tion,  they  may  form  a  part  of  the  feleftion  for  the  ufe 
of  the  county  fchools.  And  thus  the  youth  in  our 
country  will  effeclaally,  and  at  a  cheap  rate,  be 
grounded  in  the  knowledge  of  this  important  fubjeft. 
They  will  be  eafily  iufpired  with  a  thirft  for  inquiry 
and  experiment,  and  either  never  acquire,  or  foon 
baniih,  attachments  to  bad  fyflems,  originating  in  the 
ignorance  and  bigotry  of  their  forefathers,  which  in 
all  countries  have  been  the  bane  of  good  hufbandry. 
It  will  alfo  be  the  bufmefs  of  the  fociety  to  recom- 
mend the  collection  of  ufeful  books  on  agriculture 
and  rural  affairs  in  every  county.  The  citizens  of 
the  country  fhould  be  drawn  into  a  fpirit  of  inquiry 
by  the  eflablifhment  of  fmall,  but  well  chofen  libra- 
ries, on  various  fubjects.  This  would  not  only  pro- 
mote theinterefls  of  agriculture,  but  it  would  diffufe 
knowledge  among  the  people  and  aliid  good  govern- 
ment. 


OF    AGRICULTURE.  363 

ment,  which  is  never  in  danger  while  a  free  people 
are  well  informed. 

5.  The  general  meetings  of  this  fociety,  confiding 
of  fuch  members  as  may  choofe  to  attend,  and  parti- 
cularly thofe  charged  with  communications  or  infor- 
mation from  the  county  and  other  focieties,  (liould  be 
held  at  Philadelphia,  at  a  time,  in  the  winter  feffions 
of  the  legiilature,  when  citizens  who  may  be  mem- 
bers thereof,  or  have  other  bufmefs,  can  with  moft 
convenience  attend.  At  thefe  meetings,  the  general 
bufinefs  of  the  fociety  can  be  arranged,  its  funds  and 
tranfactions  examined,  and  its  laws  and  rules  report- 
ed, difcuifed  and  rendered  generally  ferviceable  and 
agreeable  to  the  whole. 

6.  It  will  be  necefl'ary  that  a  contribution  be  made 
by  each  member,  annually,  for  a  fund.  But  this 
fliould  be  fmali,  that  it  may  not  be  too  heavy  a  tax 
on  members.  The  funds  will,  no  doubt,  be  increaf- 
ed  by  donations  from  individuals ;  and  if  the  ilate 
fliould  find  the  inflitution  as  ufeful  as  it  is  contem- 
plated to  be,  the  patriotihn  of  the  members  of  the 
government  will  be  exercifed,  by  aifording  affidance 
out  of  the  monies  of  the  flate.  They  will  perceive 
that  it  is  vain  to  give  facilities  to  tranfportation,  un- 
Icfs  the  produfts  of  the  country  are  increafed  by  good 
huibandry  :  and  though  thefe  facilities  are  important 
to  the  objefts  of  this  fociety,  yet  an  increafed  know- 

ied.^c- 


364  A    STATE     SOCIETY* 

ledge  of  agriculture  is  the  foundation  of  their  exten- 
Hve  utility.  The  fubjeifts  of  both  are  intimately  con- 
nected, and  mutually  depend  on  each  other. 

7.  When  the  funds  of  the  fociety  increafe  fuffici- 
ently  to  embrace  the  object,  it  will  perfect  all  its 
efforts  by  cddhWih'mg  pattern  farms,  in  different  and 
convenient  parts  of  the  Hate.  Let  the  beginning  of 
this  plan  be  with  one  eflablifhmenf,  under  the  direc- 
tion of  the  fociety,  and  committed  to  the  care  of  a 
complete  farmer  and  gardener.  In  this,  all  foreign 
and  domeftic  trees,  fhrubs,  plants,  feeds  or  grains 
may  be  cultivated,  and  if  approved  as  ufeful,  diflemi- 
nated,  with  directions  for  their  culture,  through  the 
flate.  The  mod  approved  implements  may  be  ufed 
on  this  farm,  and  either  improved  by  additions,  or 
limplified  to  advantage.  Inventions  may  be  brought 
to  trial,  and  the  bed  felefted.  Models  thereof  may 
be  made  and  tranfmitted  to  the  county  and  other  fo- 
cieties.  Thofe  who  are  fent  to,  or  occafionally  vifit 
the  farm,  will  gain  more  knowledge,  in  all  its  opera- 
tions, from  a  ihort  infpeftion,  than  can  be  acquired, 
in  a  long  time,  by  reading  on  the  ufe  and  conftruftion 
of  inilruments,  or  the  modes  of  cultivation.  The 
cheapefl,  bell  and  mod  commodious  flyle  of  rural  ar- 
chitecture— the  moil  proper  and  permanent  live- 
fences — improvements  in  the  breed  of  horfes,  cattle 
and  flieep — remedies  for  occalional  and  unforefeen 
vifitations  of  vermin-^the  times  and  feafons  for  fow- 

inc 


OF     AGRICULTURE.  2>^S 

ing  particular  crops— the  adapting  foreign  produfts 
to  our  climate — and  preventives  againft  all  the  evils 
attendant  on  our  local  fltuatlon,  or  arifmg  from  acci- 
dental caufes — may  here  be  pra<ftically  introduced. 
The  thoughts  and  fuggcftions  of  ingenious  men  may 
here  be  put  in  practice ;  and  being  brought  to  the 
tcft  of  experiment,  their  utility  may  be  proved,  or 
their  fallacy  deteftcd.     This  farm  need  not  be  large. 
On  it  the  bed  fyflems  now  known  may  be  carried 
through,  and  farther  experiments  made  ;  promifmg 
youths  may  be  fent  from  ditferent  parts  of  the  flate, 
to   learn  practically  the  arts  of  hufbandry.     Ma- 
nures and  the  beft  mode  of  collecting  them,  may  be 
tried  ;   native  manures  ftiould  be  fought  after,  and 
premiums  given  for  their  difcovery.     Their  efficacy 
may  be  proved  by  fmall  experiments  on  this  farm, 
which  ihould,  in  epitome,  embrace  the  whole  circle 
of  praftical  hufbandry.     Similar  farms  m.ay  be  added , 
as  the  funds  increafe  ;  and  thus  pra£tical  agricultural 
fchools  be  inftituted  throughout  the  flate. 

8.  When  the  pecuniary  affairs  of  the  fociety  be- 
come adequate,  it  will  highly  contribute. tp  the  in- 
terefl  of  agriculture,  if,  at  the  expenfe  of  the  foci- 
ety, fome  ingenious  perfon  or  perfons  were  fent  to 
Europe,  for  the  purpofes  of  agricultural  inquiries. 
It  would  be  well  too,  if  a  few  young  perfons,  of 
promifing  abilities,  were  fent  thither,  to  be  inflruft- 
cd  in  the  arts  of  hufbandry,  the  breeding  of  cattle, 


366  A     STATE     SOCIETY 

&c.  and  to  gain  a  pra£tical  knowledge  on  ail  fub- 
je£ts  conne£ied  with  this  interefling,  delightful  and 
important  bnfinefs,  on  which  the  exiftence,  wealth 
and  permanent  profperity  of  our  country  fo  materi- 
ally depend. 

9.  Although  it  would  feem  that  a  great  porrion 
of  this  plan  has  reference  to  the  older  fcttlements 
of  the  ftate,  yet  in  faci:,  many  of  its  mod:  ufeful 
arrangements  will  apply  to  new  fettlements,  in  aa 
eminent  degree.  Thefe  fettlements  are,  for  the 
mofl:  part,  firfl:  eflabliilied  by  people  little  acquaint- 
ed with  a  good  ftyle  of  hufbandry.  The  earth,  in 
its  prime,  throws  up  abundant  vegetation,  and  for  a 
lliort  period  rewards  the  raoft  carelefs  hufbandman. 
Fertility  is  antecedent  to  his  efforts  ;  and  he  has  it 
not  to  recreate  by  artificial  means.  But  he  is  igno- 
rant of  the  mod  beneficial  modes  whereby  he  can 
take  advantage  of  this  youthful  vigour,  with  which 
his  foil  is  blelTed.  He  wafles  its  llrength,  and  fuf- 
fcrs  its  riches  to  flee  away.  A  bad  ftyle  of  crop- 
ping iucreafes  the  tendency  of  freih  lands  to  throw 
up  weeds  and  other  noxious  herbage  ;  and  that  lux- 
uriance, which  with  care  and  fylfem  might  be  per- 
petuated, is  indulged  in  its  own  deftruftion.  It  is 
difcovcred,  when  it  is  too  late,  that  what  was  the 
foundation  of  the  fupport  and  wealth  of  the  impro- 
vident poifcfTor,  has  been,  by  his  ignorance  and  ne- 
vglecV,  like  the  patrimony  of  a  fpendthrift,  permit- 
ted. 


OF     AGRICULTURE.  367 

ted,  and  even  ftimulated,  rapidly  to  pafs  from  Iiira 
in  wild  extravagance. 


The  products  of  nature,  in  our  new  countries, 
feldom  have  been  turned  to  account.  The  timber 
is  deemed  an  incumbrance,  and  at  prefent  is  perhaps 
too  much  fo.  The  labour  and  expenfe  of  preparing 
for  tillage  are  enormous ;  and,  when  the  fole  objeft 
is  that  of  cultivation,  very  difcouraging.  European 
books  give  us  no  lefibns  in  thefe  operations.  But 
when  the  experience  of  our  people  is  aided  and 
brought  to  a  point,  by  an  union  of  facts  and  the 
ingenuity  of  intelligent  men,  now  too  much  difperf- 
ed  to  be  drawn  into  fyftem,  it  is  to  be  expefted, 
with  the  fureft  profpecls  of  fuccefs,  that  our  difi- 
culties  on  this  head  will  be  abated,  if  not  overcome. 
The  raanufafture  of  potaQi,  and  the  produ£ls  of  the 
fugar-maple,  raay  be  objefts  of  the  attention  of  the 
fociety.  ^lore  profitable  modes  of  applying  labour 
will  hereby  be  promoted,  and  returns  for  expenfe 
In  the  preparation  for  culture,  be  obtained.  Faci- 
lities for  clearing  lands  may  be  difcovcred.  Mine- 
rals, earths  and  foffils  now  unknown  or  neglected, 
may  be  brought  into  ufe,  or  become  objects  of  com- 
merce. In  fine,  no  adequate  calculation  can  be 
formed  of  the  eil'c<fts  which  may  be  produced  by  a 
confolidation  of  the  efforts,  and  even  fpcculations, 
of  our  citizens,  whofe  interefts  will  llimulate  them 
to  exertion.     Channels  of  communication  will  be 

eflabiifhed, 


368  A     STATE    SOCIETY,     ^f. 

eftabliihed,  and  the  whole  will  receive  the  benefits 
arifing  from  a  collection  of  the  thoughts  and  labours 
of  individuals,  whofe  minds  will  be  turned  to  a  fub- 
ject  fo  engaging  and  profitable,  as  well  to  themfelves 

as  to  their  countrv. 

The  application  was  rejected ;  by  hujbandmen 
who  were  principally  to  be  benefitted.  So  when  it 
was  propofed  to  fupply  London  with  water  from  the 
river  Lee,  London  itfelf  oppofed  it :  but  the  bleffing 
was  forced  upon  London  ;  and  it  is  chiefly  fupplied 
from  thence.* 

Of 

*  France  abounds  mfea-coal,  as  eaf:!)-  to  be  procured  as  it 
is  in  Englard ;  but  it  is  not  at  all  ufed  in  families ;  although 
other  fuel  is  fo  very  fcarce  that  verj  many  of  the  people  are 
obliged  to  lie  in  bed  whole  days,  for  keeping  themfelres 
warm  in  cold  weather.  This  probably  was  formerly  the  cafe 
in  England,  as  it  was  with  fome  difficulty  that  the  family -ufe 
of  coal  was  there  introduced;  for  the  people  of  England 
were  oppofed  to  it,  on  a  fancied  notion  that  cod-Jirts  are  un- 
wholefome,  which  they  could  not  fay  from  eipeiience.  In 
the  time  of  Queen  Elizabeth  a  bill  in  Parliament  dated  that 
certain  tradefnien  ufed  coal  in  London,  icftead  of  wood,  to 
the  prejudice  of  healdi ;  and  it  propofed  that  the  u''^e  of  it 
fnould  be  prohibited.  But  fince  the  tmiverfal  ufe  of  coal- 
fircs,  the  people  are  perfuaded  they  render  the  air  falubrious, 
and  they  are  not  fubjeS  to  the  peftilential  fevers  which  ufed 
fo  feverely  to  aSi<a  them.  So  much  for  inconfiderate  oppo- 
fition  by  the  ignorant  multitude  to  their  beft  interefts.  St. 
Fond's  Trav.  in  England,  159. — "  We  want  no  informatica 
on  hufbandr}-,  we  kr.ow  all  about  it — Give  us  labour,  we 


husbandman's  choice,  ^c.  369 

0/  the  Hiijhandman'' s  Choice  of  Subjeds,  between 

LIFE-STOCK  and  GRAIN. 

Meat  is  deemed  a  staple  article  of  the  produce  of 
the  lands  in  Ireland,  for  exportation  ;  fo  is  grain  of 
the  lands  in  the  United  States  of  America.  Scarcely 
any  other  country  than  Ireland  makes  7neat  a 
flaple  of  its  produce,  but  there  are  I'everal  befides 
America  that  aim  at  making  grain  their  ftaple ; 
fo  that  it  may  feera  there  is  a  greater  opening  for 
enlarging  the  production  and  trade  in  meat  than  In 
grain.  Meat  is  raifcd  at  a  lefs  expenfe  and  ha- 
zard than  grain  ;  and,  what  is  of  the  firft  confidera- 
tion  to  the  landholder  and  hufbandman,  the  raifmg 
of  meat  improves  the  foil,  whilfl  the  cultivation  of 
grain  is  ruinous  to  it. 

There  is  little  danger  that  purfuits  after  the  pro- 
ductions of  meat  fliould  be  over-done  more  than  af- 
A  a  ter 

want  not  your  books  of  Infomnation."  Farmers  in  Pennfyl- 
vania  to  Dr.  Fninklin,  when  he  offered  them  Dr.  ii7/o/'s  cele- 
brated Efiays  on  Field  HufbanJry. 

In  Denmark,  hufbandry  is  promoted  by  focietics  ;  whofe 
firft  objeft  is  to  procure  perfons  capable  of  undertaking  and 
direding  a  fchool  of  kujhandry.  Here  Natural  Philofopliy, 
Botany,  Chemiftry,  Geometry,  and  Mechanics,  are  ftudi- 
oully  louglit  after,  fo  far  as  thefe  fciences  are  of  utility  to 
Agriculture.  The  benefits  already  derived  from  this  efla- 
bliihmcnt  ai  e  very  great. 


27©  HUSBAKDMAN  S    CHOICE 

ter  grain  ;  both  are  ncccjfarks  in  uulverfal  demand, 
and  fuch  articles  w  ill  always  find  their  own  value  in 
the  market.  Ivloreover  it  would  be  advifable  to 
contend  for  the  pofTeffion  of  fuch  ameliorating  sta- 
pies,  although  for  a  while  it  might  be  under  fome 
pecuniary  difadvantage. 

In  what  country  is  the  manufa£hiring  of  grain  car- 
ried fo  far,  or  to  fuch  perfection  as  in  thefe  flates  ? 
Whilil  the  hufbandmen  of  Ireland  reckon  on  meat 
produced  and  exported,  the  hufbandman  of  America 
is  alert  in  cultivating  and  felling  in  the  market,  for 
exportation,  all  the  grain  that  can  be  produced  from 
his  labours  and  his  attentions ;  but  not  a  thought 
has  he  of  railing  meat  for  the  foreign  market :  he 
fees  that  meat  is  produced  and  applied  to  doraeftic 
ufes,  and  for  fupporting  our  feamen  on  their  voy- 
ages ; — any  further  he  is  inattentive  X.o  it.  He  is 
not  moved  by  obfervations  on  meat  exported  as  mer- 
chandife,  and  its  producing  an  important  income, 
•with  eifential  improvement  of  the  means  of  further 
powers  of  production. 

It  was  during  fuch  a  ftate  of  inattention  to  live  stock, 
that  there  lately  appeared  a  report  of  the  officers  of 
government  to  the  Congrefs  of  the  United  States,  of 
the  general  exports  from  hence  into  foreign  countries, 
for  the  year  1799;  when,  flruck  with  the  am.ount 
of  140,000  barrels  of  meat  fent  to  markets  abroad, 

I 


BETWEEN    LIVE-STOCK    AND    GRAIN.       37 1 

I  collected  into  one  view,  from  the  report,  all  the 
articles  of  Ihe  stock  and  its  relations^  and  alfo  all  the 
articles  of  grain  and  its  relations,  exported  from 
America,  and  added  thereto  efiimates  oi  the  value. 
The  refult  of  my  obfcrvatiohs  thereon,  was  a  con- 
viflion  that  live  stock,  whilfi:  little  thought  of  by  the 
hufbandmen  oi  Arnsrica  as  an  article  of  the  firll  ini- 
portance  to  theiTi  and  to  their  country,  is  equal  at 
lead  to  grain,  great  and  important  as  this  is. 

A  preference  to  live  stock  productions  would  tend 
to  reftore  and  fupport  the  vigor  of  our  lands,  whilfl 
the  prcfent  rage  for  grain  is  the  caufe  of  their  po- 
verty,  which  mufl  increale  whilll:  we  continue  to 
take  all  from  the  ground,  and  return  nothing  to  it. 

To  flirmers  propofing  to  m?J<:e  live  stock  the  choice 
of  their  attention,  it  is  objeCled  there  is  a  luant  cf  a 
market  for  live  stock.  But  that  this  is  not  really  the 
cafe,  the  following  ftatement  may  be  convincing; 
for,  it  proves  that  America  finds  markets  abroad 
for  live  stock,  in  value  as  great  as  in  grain  ;  and  no 
pcrfon  obje£ls  to  cultivate  grain  "  becaufe  there  is 
a  want  of  markets.'*  For  the  nccejjary  articles  cf 
life  there  ever  mufl  be  a  demand,  a  market.  Then 
of  thofe  neceiTary  articles,  whatever  improves  the 
means,  that  is  amends  the  land,  mufl  be  a  better 
choice  of  attention  than  what,  whilft  it  fills  the  poc- 
ket, reduces  the  means  by  impovcrijhing  the  land. 
A  a  2  Univerlaliy 


^•J^Z  HUSBANDMAN'S    CHOICL 

Unlverfally  throughout  the  United  States,  the 
culture  of  grain  is  the  anxious  purfuit  of  hufband- 
men.  It  is  only  in  the  New-England  dates  that  the 
railing  and  felling  live  stock  is  much  attended  to  by 
iqduftrious  hulbandmen. 

In  the  year'  1799,  according  to  the  faid  report, 
there  was  exported  from  the  United  States  to  foreign 
countries, — 

Dol. 
Of  grain  and  its  relations,   to  the 
eftimated  value  of 


i       3,800,766 
Of  /ii-e  stock  and  its  relations,  do.  val.     3,783,044 


Val.  in  grain,  more  than  in  live  stock,  only       1 7,722 

— Almoft  equal ;  and  may  be  coniidered  quite  fo  in 
eilimates. 

If  then  live  stock,  which  is  no  objcft  of  crop  or 
income  with  hufbandmen,  except  in  New-England^ 
and  on  a  part  of  the  thin  lands  in  the  fouthera 
country,  infenllbly  and  with  little  of  defign  comes 
fo  near  in  the  amount  of  value  to  the  favorite  and 
coftly  produftion  of  grain,  how  fuperior  would  live 
stock  be  in  value,  if  it  was  made  the  hufbandman's 
favorite  objecl  of  produce,  inflead  of  ^rj/;;/*  befides 
preferving  the  foil ;  v.hilil  the  production  of  grain 
dcflroys  the  foil. 

A  Table 


BETWEEN    LIVE-STOCK    AND    GRAIN.       37J 


A  Tabic  of  ProvifionSi  the  produce  of  the  United  States 
of  America,  exported  in  the  year  1799,  taken  froTii 
the  faid  report,  ^^ifi^g  '^•f  well  from  grain  as  from 
live  (lock,  and  their  refpedive  relations  : 

Dol. 
Beans,  bufli.  20,000  7 

r>  ^      c  07,60-1  at  I  del.        67,60-5 

Peas,     .     .    47,6033     "     ->  /'J 

Oats,     .     .    S7^159     •     •     •     S^cts.         17,207 

Rye,     15957 

'  ""^f  2,147     .     .     .     70     .     .      1,503 

Barley,  5523 

Wheat,  10,056     ...        I  dol.        10,056 

Flour,  bar.  519,265  =  2,596,325  buQi.  7      f^^ 

Wheat  I  dol.  5  ^090,325 

Maize,  bu.  1,200,495     •     •     6octs.     .     720,292 

Meal  of  maize,  231,226" 

Rye,      49,269 

Bkwh.        7.    M«''449-7oc.    .97,°H 

Oats,  200J 

Bifcuit,  bar.    47340     ...  3  dol.  142,020 

Starch  &  Powder,     69ooolbs.  20  cts.  13,800 

Ship-fluff,          1,747,088       .  2     .  .     34,946 

3,800,766 
Beef, 


or 


HUSBANDMAN  S    CHOICE 


5  :>y 


Hories,  Gzoz     So 


'J 

10 


cts 


Beef,  bar.   91,321     .     .      12  dol. 

Pork,  52,26s     .     .      16     .     .     . 

Tallotr,  !fe.  19926  ^  1,080,317ft 

Do.  Candles,  1,060,39.1  j 

Lard,  lbs,    1,451,657     . 

Buirer,         1,314,502     . 

Cheefe,        1,164,590     . 

Hams  &  Bacon,  1,412,005 

Sheep,  9733  at  2  dol. 

Hogs,    37S6       2    .     .     . 

Cattle,  c^oj.    2J.    .     .     . 


20 

12 

19,466 

7^572 

127,280 

37/5400 


1,095,852 
836,288 

?  149563^ 

145,166 
262,900 
163,042 
169,440 


Dung,  remaining  to  the  farms,  from  ^ 
livei^ck,  399/300  tons,  at  y^  cts.  5 


531.718 
321,637 


Produced  from  grain,  3,800,766 

/;-i-  i^:r^      3,783,044 


DifFerence,         ^7^7-^ 


3,783,044 


For  drawing  atten'ion5  to  live  stock,  the  expref- 
fions  above  are  flrong  ;  but  the  idea  is,  that  in  thin 
lands  zLwifnig  restoration,  efpecial  attention  is  to  be 
paid  to  live  stock,  at  lead  until  the  foil  is  recovered  j 
and  that  at  all  times  elfe  a  due  attention  be  paid, 
in  a  courfe  of  ftinning,  both  to  grain  and  live  stock. 
If  the  one  impcvcrijhes,  the  other  restores  the  foil. 

All 


BETWEEN    LIVE-STOCK    AND    GRAIN.       375 

All  which  wc  have  now  confirmed  and  greatly 
ftrengthened  on  the  evidence  of  the  board  of  agricul- 
ture in  England,  who  have  publiflied,  among  other 
particulars,  their  declaration  that  "  The  hulband- 
ry  of  every  country  depends  moflly  on  the  market 
for  cattle,  Jheep,  and  -ivoolJ*  They  thereupon  aflc — 
"  How  Rir  is  the  bad  culture  oi  America  owing  to  a 
want  of  thofe  particulars  ?" — Further  they  aik — 
"  Is  there  a  demand  for  beef,  mutton,  and  'ujqoI,  in 
any  quantities  for  exportation,  or  otherwife  ? — 
And  how  far  does  the  exigence  of  thefe  circuraftan- 
ces  in  the  vicinity  of  large  towns,  remedy  fuch  bad 
cultivation  ?" 

In  an  anfwer  given  to  thefe  queflions  by  a  arming 
gentleman  of  Yorkflure,  after  he  had  travelled  in  the 
United  States,  it  is  faid  that  "  cattle  for  the  curing 
houfes,  in  all  parts  of  Ne%v-Engla7id,  are  calculated  in 
the  drove,  at  i8s.  pd.  fterling  per  hundred  ft.  hide 
and  tallow  included.  Beef  from  31s.  6d.  to  45s. 
(lerling  per  barrel  of  two  hundred  pounds,  nett, 
each,  according  to  quality :  the  firfl  he  fays  is  very 
bad,  the  lail  excellent ;  and  the  demand  is  far  greater 
than  the  fipply :  Pork  per  barrel,  not  furpaffed  by 
any  in  the  world,  is  72  to  76s.  flerling.*  And  fur- 
ther, it  is  obfcrved,  from  the  detail  hereon,  that  it 
is  not  only  evident  that  the  demand  for  expor- 
tation 

*  Cattle  at  18/9J  fterling  =  416  cents.    Beef,  medium  38/ 
3^  =  850  cents.     Pork,  medium  74/=  1646  cents. 


3/6  husbandman's  choice 

tation  must  be  greater  than  the  f apply,  but  that  the  cott' 
fumption  by  the  great  toxviis  affords  a  price  more  than 
fufficient  for  all  the  articles  that  are  carried  to  them. 

In  other  parts  of  the  EfTays,  it  is  contended  that 
foiling,  or  stall-feeding  live  stock,  is  much  more  ad- 
vantageous than  pasturing  ;  and  that  regular  rotations 
and  Jystems  of  crops  and  bufinefs,  are  alfo  greatly 
fuperior  to  the  common  practices  and  random  pur- 
fuits.  In  fupport  whereof,  from  a  publication  of 
the  Board  of  Agriculture,  are  here  inferted  the  fol- 
lowing : 

"  By  direction  of  the  Society  of  Rural  Economy, 
of  Zell,  in  the  Electorate  of  Hanover,  the  following 
was  prefented  by  Doctor  Thaer,  to  the  Board  of 
Agriculture,  in  England. 

''  The  two  fyftems  of  rural  economy,  befi  proved 
by  experience,  and  acknowledged  to  be  the  mod 
perfect  in  the  Electorate  of  Hanover,  fay  the  focie- 
ty,  are  the  plan  of  ftall-feeding,  and  the  Mecklen- 
burg or  Holilein  Schlag,  or  Koppein  Economy ; 
whereof, 

"  The  Koppein  or  Schlag  Economy,  confifts  in  an 
equal  partition  of  fields,  into  a  certain  number  of 
portions,  and  in  ?i  fixed,  or  a  regularly  varied  ife  of 
them,  either  for  cultivation,  nuadov:;,  or  pasture. 
It  has  from  feven  to  thirteen   portions,  eflabliihed 

upon 


BETWEEN    LIVE-STOCK    AND    GRAIN.       '^']'J 

upon  certain  determinate  general  principles. — There 
certainly  is  no  fysteni  of  hujhandry  more  regular,  or 
more  to  be  depended  on,  fo  far  as  it  goes,  fays  Doc- 
tor Thaer,  the  writer  for  the  fociety.  The  number 
of  the  o.\r«,  of  milch  cows^  the  manure^  the  differ- 
ent kinds  of  plows  or  implements,  the  yoic/;?^,  the 
fucceilion  of  crcps^  every  thing  is  fixed  in  the  mod 
accurate  manner.  Every  work  has  its  proper  iime, 
and  its  regular  Juccejfton^  fo  as  to  be  done  with  the 
fmalleft:  pofiible  expence,  either  by  the  flrength  of 
men  or  cattle.  A  polleflion  of  many  acres  is  kept 
in  order  with  the  fame  eafe  as  one  of  a  few  acres. 
This  fylfem  refembles  a  clock,  which  is  wound  up 
once  a  year  by  confulting  the  regifters :  the  value 
of  an  eftate  managed  in  this  way,  and  the  rent  it 
can  afford,  may  be  determined  at  once.  The  con- 
ditions on  which  the  ground  may  be  let,  are,  upon 
general  principles,  capable  of  being  determined  with 
fuch  accuracy,  that  it  is  not  in  the  power  of  the  far- 
mer to  impoverifli  the  land." 

"  But,  whoever  wiflics  to  draw  the  highest pojftblc 
produce  from  his  lands  ;  though  undoubtedly  with 
a  greater  expence  of  money,  labour,  and  attention  ; 
whoever  choofes  to  employ  a  greater  number  of 
hands  in  the  ufeful  occupations  of  huibanury,  and 
to  keep  a  greater  number  of  cattle,  io  odvjntage^ 
will,  beyond  a  doubt,  prefer  the  mode  of  stall  fccd- 


inz 


'6' 


TIk 


373  husbandman's  choice 

"  The  Advantages  of  the  System  of  Stnll-Feeding, 
are  founded  upon  the  following  incontrovertible 
principles : 

1.  A  fpot  of  ground,  wliich,  when  pastured  up- 
on, will  yield  fufficient  food  for  only  o?ie  head,  will 
abundantly  maintain  four  head  of  cattle  in  the  stable, 
if  the  vegetables  be  mowed  at  a  proper  time,  and 
given  to  the  cattle  in  a  proper  order* 

2.  The  stall  feeding  yields,  at  leafl,  double  the 
quantity  of  manure  from  the  fame  number  of  cattle  ; 
for  the  bed  and  mofl  efficacious  fummer  manure,  is 
produced  in  the  stable  ;  and  carried  to  the  fields  at 
the  mod  proper  period  of  its  fermentation. 

3.  The  cattle  ufed  to  stallfeeding,  will  yield  a 
much  greater  quantity  of  milk,  and  increafe  fafler 
in  weight  "when  fattening,  than  when  they  go  to  the 
field. 

4.  They  are  lefs  liable  to  accidents,  do  not  fufi*er 
by  the  heat,  hj  flies  and  infects,  and  are  not  affeded 
by  the  ivcathgr. 

**  For  explaining  thefe  principles  more  accurately, 
the  following  fhort  defcription  is  here  prefented,  as 
carried  on  at  a  farm  called  EJfcnrodc,  belonging  to 

Baron 


BETWEEN    LIVE-STOCK    AND    GRAIN.       37^ 

BaroQ  Biilow,  which  confills  of  700  acres  of  grafs 
land. 


"  It  had  been  tiUed  many  centuries  ago,  and  con- 
ijfted  of  a  very  good  clay  foil.  The  Baron  broke  it 
up,  and  laid  it  oat  mfeven partitims  (koppeln),  each 
conlifting  of  90  acres,  and  an  additional  one  of  lix- 
ty  acres  adjoining  to  the  farm.  The  farm  has  befides, 
24  acres  of  meadow,  and  22  acres  of  garden 
ground. 

"  ITie  fmaller  portion,  is  deflined  partly  for  lu- 
cerne, and  partly  for  cabbage,  for  roots  and  vegetables 
for/ale.  ' 

"  Thtfeven  main  partitkns  (koppeln)  are  manag- 
ed in  the  following  manner. 

"  One  year,  a  divifion  or  koppeln  is  manured  for 
beans,  peas,  cabbages,  potatoes,  turnips,  linfeed,  Src.  ; 
2.  rye;  3.  barky  mixed  with  clover ;  4.  clcier,  to  be 
mowed  tv.o  or  three  times ;  5.  clvcer,  to  be  mowed 
once,  at  St.  John's,  then  to  be  broke  up,  plowed  3 
or  4  times  and  manured  j  6.  wheat ;  7.  oats. 

"  The  stock  of  cattle,  amounts  in  afl  to  100  head  ; 
namely,  70  heavy  Fries  land  milch-co^a:s  or  oxen,  to  he 
fattened,  which  are  continually  kept  in  the  stable,  and 
about  30  head  o^ draught  oxen  and  young  cattle. 

"A 


o^^ 


husbandmak's  choics 


"  A  fafficient,  or  rather  fkntiful  fupply  of  food 
for  one  head  of  cattle,  daily  if  kept  in  a  stable,  con- 
fifts  upon  an  average  of  ijOfb  of  green,  or  3c!b  of 
dry  clover,  which  anfwers  the  fame  purpofe.* 
Hence  one  head  of  cattle  requires  in  ■t>^^  days 
I0j95olb  o^  dry  chver,  or  about  one  hundred  cwt. 
of  I  lo'^  each  ;  the  portion  of  food  being,  according 
to  this  mode  of  feeding,  alike,  both  in  fummer,  and 
in  winter.  Hence  70  head  require  annually,  7000 
hundred  weight  of  dry  clover. 

**  One  acre  of  clover,  mowed  twice  or  thrice, 
yields  -:o  quintals,  and  one  acre  mowed  once,  25 
quintals ;  confequently  90  acres  of  the  former,  and 
90  acres  of  the  latter,  produce  6350  quintals.  The 
deficient  650  quintals,  are  completed  by  lucerne,  and 
other  vegetables,  fit  for  food,  from  the  finaller  por- 
tion (^koppeln). 

*•  Belides  all  this,  the  ofials  of  the  vegetables  of  the 
hy-lands^  the  straw  mixed  ivith  clrrcer.  and  the  young 

clover 

*  The  difference  in  the  quantity  of  food  feems  great.  In 
the  EJkjiy  are  allowed  171b  of  tay  ;  in  the  prefent  inftance 
3oib,  of  what  is  called  dry  clover.  But  it  is  proper  to  confider 
that  the  difference  between  hfepirg  ■and.fattrning  cattle  is  always 
great ;  iu  the  one  inftance  they  are  allowed  only  a  fufficiency 
lofufiain  them  in  healthful  plight ;  which  is  much  below  what 
they  are  encoaraged  to  eat  and  have  without  ftint  for  fatten- 
ing them.  Again,  a  difference  is  made  between  common Jiz^d 
cattle,  and  large  beaus  :  the  EJfayt  fpeak  of  comnizn  caiiU,  htpt  : 
the  Hanoverian  accotm:  isof  Zvj^,  Friffljnd  cattle,  fattened. — 
But  hay  is  not  neceflhry  in  fattening  cattle. 


BETWEEN    LIVE-STOCK    AND    GRAIN.       3S1 

clover  of  the  fifth  portion,  when  laid  down,  joined  to 
the  Hubble  feeding,  will  produce  fufficient  food  for 
the  draught  oxen  and  the  young  cattle.  The  hay 
mowed  from  the  meadows,  is  preferved  for  the  ufe 
of  the  horfes. 

"  Each  head  of  heavy ^  fat  cattle,  fed  in  the  stable, 
if  a  plenty  of  Utter  be  given,  yields  annually,  ftxieen 
fidl  double  cartloads  of  dung  ;  ']o  head  therefore  yield 
1120  fuder  or  cartloads.  Add  to  this  30  draught 
oxen  and  young  cattle,  at  6  fuder  or  cartloads,  a  year, 
and  the  produce  will  be  1300  fuder. 

A  management  of  this  kind,  therefore,  affords  a 
triennial  manuring  per  acre,  of  10  fuder  or  cartloads, 
of  good  liable  dung  ;  and  as,  to  this  is  united  a  com- 
plete and  regular  tillage  andfuccejfion  of  crops,  a  double 
produce  of  corn  may  be  expected  thus : 

Acres.  Rix  dollars. 

90  Wheat  yield  at  20       1800  at  i  dol.     1800 
90  Rye  20       1800  24     1200 

90  Barley  24       2160  24     1260* 

90  Oats  ,    36       3240  12      1080 

90  manured  lay  crop,  and  30  acres  in  the 

fmall  portion,  120  acres  at  15  1803 

The  heavy  Friefland  cows,  fed  with  the  fame 
plenty,  both  winter  and  fummer,  or  the 
Oxen  that  are  yearly  fiiut  rp  /icvV^  in  the 

flables 


382  HUSBANDMAK  S    CHOICE 

iiahles,  fatie!ied,  and  fold  at  40  rix  dollars 

a  head.  2800 


Thus  the  farm  produces  *9940 

"  That  we  may  be  able  to  afcertain  the  relafhe 

proportion  in  point  of  produce,  of  our  two  most  re- 

nowned  fysiems  of  rural  economy,  the  fame  farm  is 

now  to  be  conCdered  as  managed  after  the  koppcln 

fystem  of  Mecklenburg. 

"According  to  the  quality  of  its /oil,  which  is 
very  good,  yet  flands  in  need  of  manuring,  it  ought 
to  be  divided  into  7nne  portions,  of  77  acres  each  ; 
the  reafons  for  which  will  foon  appear. 

"  According  to  experience,  thefe  are  moft  advan- 
tageoufly  appropriared  in  the  following  manner  :" 

I.  Fallows,  plowed  during  the  whole  fummerand 
left  unfown  ;  2.  Wheat,  unmanured  j  ^.  Barky  ;  4. 
manured  lay-land,  with  lay-crop  ;  5.  Rye ;  6.  OatSj 
with  clover;  7.  Clo'ver,  once  cut j  then  paftured j 
S.  Pasture  ;  9.  Pasture, 

"  By  this  mode  of  management,  yy  acres  are  ma- 
nured every  ninth  year,  each  acre  with  10  fudcr  or 

cartlcrvds. 

*  The  R'lx  dollar,  in  Hanover,  is  3/6  ftsrling  :  elfevrhere,  in 
general,  about  3/. fader,  is  a  carthad. 


BETWEEN    LIVE-STOCK    AND    GRAIN.       383 

cartloads.  As  one  head  o^ grazing  cattle  yields  eight 
fuder,  97  head  ought  to  be  kept.  Each  head,  on  this 
foil,  requires  two  acres  for  its  pasture  ;  confequently 
97  head  require  124  acres,  or  2|koppeIn.  Hence 
follows  the  divifion  9  portions,  as  above. 

"  It  may  be  admitted  that  aaiong  thefc  cattle  there 
are  about  eighty  milch  coils,  the  rest  draught  oxen. 
This  kind  of  economy  feldom  rears  young  cattle,  but 
buys  them.  The  cous  are  of  the  fraaller  breed,  in 
this  koppeln  fyftem,  or  elfe  the  paflure  would  not 
be  fufficient  for  thera.  During  winter,  they  live 
upon  nothing  elfe  but  straw  ;  for  what  little  there  is 
oi clover-hay,  is  deftined  for  the  draught  oxen  ;  hence 
it  comes  that  they  do  not  produce  more  than  ten  rix 
dollars  a  head.  -  -  -         8  00 

"  Though  by  this  fydem  the  land  is  manured  only 
once  e-very  nine  years,  which  according  to  the  Jystem 
of  stall  feeding,  is  done  every  third  year  ;  yet  this  is 
made  up  in  fuch  a  manner,  by  a  three  years  reft, 
and  the  lay  left  quite  unfown,  &c.  that  the  return 
of  the  corn  may  be  admitted  at  the  fame  rate,  but 
not  higher :  confequently. 


77  acres  wheat. 

yield 

at 

20 

1540  at  I 

1540 

77  Rye 

20 

1540     24 

1026;- 

yy  Barley 

24 

1848     21 

1078 

yy  Oats 

36 

2772     12 

9-4 

yy  Lay. crop 

15 

^^55 

Produc.; 


384  husbandman's  choice 

Produce  of  the  fiirm     ^S^t,]- 
From  this  ought  to  be  deduced,  for  the 
expenfe  of  houfe-keeping,  8zc.  nearly 


1500 


Remains  clear  produce  5^33", 

"  But  as  fuch  complaints  are  made  of  the  expe?ifes 
of  houfe-keeping,  S-lc*  attending  the  fyflem  of  stall 
feeding,  though  in  this  cafe  the  young  cattle  are  not 
bought,  as  in  the  other,  which  is  a  confiderable  fav- 
ing  ;  yet  we  will  admit  the  higheft  poffible  fum,  viz. 
the  double,  or  3000  rix  dollars,  to  be  deducted 
from  the  general  produce  of  9940  rix  dollars. 

"  Hence  there  remains  of  clear  profit,  by  the  fy- 
flem of  stall  feeding,  6940  rix  dollars ;  confequcnt- 
ly  it  produces,  upon  700  acres,  a  greater  profit 
than  the  koppeln  economy  of  Mecklenburg,  amounting 
to  19064.  rix  dollars ;  and  every  acre  of  its  land  is 
employed  at  a  greater  advantage  of  2i  rix  dollars. 

"  By  this  calculation,  which  may  vary  in  fmgle 
points  ;  but  which  upon  the  whole  is  proved  by  ex- 
periencj,  and  confequently  may  be  depended  upon, 
one  would  think  that  this  fyftem  of  rural  economy 
mud  become  general,  wherever  it  is  knou-n ;  but, 
as  yet  there  are  few  farms  of  any  confequence  ma- 
naged in  this  manner,  in  the  northeaftern  part  of 

Germany. 

*  yhe  ^'i;-.  includes  all  expenfes  f^i  Jlod,  fc:d,  tillage,  5;c. 


BETWEEN    LIVE-STOCK    AND    GRAIN.       385 

Germany.  In  our  country  (Hanover)  the  number 
of  wealthy  people  who  at  the  fame  time  are  enlight- 
ened, and  diverted  of  prejudice,  is  too  fraall.  In 
the  countries  of  Mecklenburg  and  Holflien,  there 
is  indeed  a  vafl  number  of  rich  and  attentive  huf- 
bandmen ;  but  the  farms  in  thofe  countries  are  ra- 
ther too  extenfive,  and  the  people  of  the  lower  clafs 
are,  comparatively  few  and  indolent.  It  cannot 
therefore  be  expefted  that  this  kind  of  economy, 
which  demands  much  greater  exertions,  fhould  be 
foon  introduced  there.  Bcfides,  it  is  believed  in 
thofe  regions,  that  the  perfection  of  rural  economy 
has  been  already  attained. 

*'  As  a  preference  is  but  relucftantly  given  to  fuch 
things  as  a  perfon  does  not  incline  to  undertake, 
t)bje(flions,  ten  times  repeated,  are  repeated  again 
and  again,  to  difcourage  the  attempt.  A  few  cafes 
in  which  this  fyftem  of  economy  would  not  anfwer, 
are  fure  to  be  referred  to.  But  it  appears  that  the 
managers  of  the  eftates,  and  the  people  employed 
thereon,  were  averfe  to  the  meafure,  and  united  to 
crujh  it ;  or  that  on  the  firft  outfet  the  aim  was  mif- 
fed, either  by  parfimony  or  by  raflmefs ;  that  there 
was  not  a  fufficient  ftocR  of  clover  hay,  or  that  it 
was  mifmanaged  when  made;  in  Ibort,  that  they 
had  been  negligent  and  carelefs  in  their  procefs. 

B  b  '<  This 


386  husbandman's  choice 

'•  Xhis  fort  of  hufbandry  docs  not  admit  of  any 
material  errors ;  and  fnitab!e  preparations  ought  to 
be  made  againil  every  accident  that  is  likely  to  be- 
fall it.  If  once  the  requifite  ftock  of  clover  fhonld 
happen  to  fail,  the  cattle  ufed  to  an  abundance  of 
food,  viill  wafte  away  in  a  manner  beyond  all  poiu- 
ble  recovery.  If  on  account  of  the  deficiency  of 
food,  the  herds  be  lejfehed  in  nimiber,  the  lands  ivill 
be  exhausted  by  the  want  of  manure.  If  to  obviate 
the  want  of  food,  a  portion  is  fuffered  to  lie  longer 
for  raiding  food,  than  it  ought  agreeable  to  the  fy- 
ftem  above  flated,  there  will  be  a  want  of  strerw, 
which  is  fo  neceffary  for  litter,  and  the  abfence  of 
which  i«  extremely  pernicious  to  the  health  of  cattle. 

"  As  in  fome  years,  though  feldom,  the  quantity 
of  food  produced,  may  be  reduced  to  only  one  half, 
the  prudent  farmer  fliould  endeavour  to  keep  one  half 
of  it,  and  like  wife  one  half  cf  his  sfraiVj  ^tbm  mie 
year  fo  another,  and  ought  not  to  fuffer  hifcfelf  to 
be  tempted  by  any  price,  be  it  ever  fo  high,  to  fell 
it.  As  this  fj-ftem  is  on  fo  great  a  fcale,  grea^  dif- 
ficulties mufl  be  conquered. 

"  In  a  fmall  farm  which  I  carr)"  on  in  this  man- 
ner (fays  the  German  writer  to  the  Ibdety)  at  a 
country  houfe,  a  quarter  of  a  mile  from  town,  and 
where  from  18  to  20  head  of  milch  cows  are  kept 
and  fed  in  a  ilable,  none  were  ever  materially  ill, 

coce 


fiETt^^EEK?    LIVE-STOCK    AND    GRAIN.       387 

none  ever  mifcarried,  nor  was  there  ever  any  left 
barren.  M.  De  Billcw  can  atteft  the  fame  thing  en 
a  greater  fcale.  The  cattle,  which  in  our  country 
graze  in  the  fields,  are,  on  the  other  hand,  expofed 
to  many  accidents. 

"  I  have  dwelt  rather  the  longer  (fays  Do^of 
Thaer)  upon  this  fyflem  of  rural  economy,  becaufe 
though  in  the  Englifli  writings  on  agriculture,   I 
have  indeed  met  with  fome  remarks  relative  to  the 
stall  feeding  of  cattle,  yet  I  have  feen  none  upon  the 
fyflem  of  economy  biailt  thereon :  and  in  the  pam- 
phlet  herewith  fcnt  to  the  Board,  which  I  wrote  a 
few  years  ago,  at  the  dcfire  of  our  fociety,  for  the 
ufe  of  the  hufbandmen  of  Lunenburg,  you  will  find 
themoft  necciTary  rules  for  stall  feeding,   detailed. 
It  has  already  produced  fuch  beneficial  effefts  that, 
at  prefent,  you  will  find  from  6  to  8  head  of  cattle, 
in  the  ftable  of  many  a  peafant,  and  the  cornfields 
much  improved,  by  the  greater  quantity  of  manure 
they  fumifh." 

Thoughts  on  hired  Labourers  and  Servants,   Cottages 
and  Cottagers. 

V^htufJaroery  {Iiall  ceafe  or  be  inhibited,  in  our 

<  ountry,  where  or  how  are  means  of  cultivatino-  the 

lands  of  the  fouthern  and  middle  ftates  to  be  found  ? 

The  landholders  and  hufbandmen  cannot  too  fcon 

B  b   -  T.     • 


388  LABOURERS    AND    SERVANTS  J 

begin  the  inquiry,  that  they  may  be  prepared  for  the 
change.  Will  they  confult  the  practices  of  huiband- 
men  in  the  old  countries  ?  The  mofl  we  know  of 
hiifbandry  has  been  received  from  them  by  our  an- 
ceftors  ;  and  improvements  in  hufbandry  during  the 
latter  part  of  the  late  century  have  been  great  in 
Europe. 

Information  from  European  farmers,  of  our  time, 
would  tend  greatly  to  improve  us  in  the  economy  and 
management  of  labour  and  labourers  hired  :  we 
fhoald  efpecially  beailiiied  by  information  from  them^ 
in  the  befl  methods  of  conducing  our  rural  bulinefs 
with  hired  labour,  which  would  be  attended  with 
many  particulars,  to  the  wafteful  and  Icfs  thought- 
ful and  refpe£ting  hired  labour  confiderably  igno- 
rant American,  equally  new,  convenient,  advantage- 
ous or  necelTary  and  becoming  his  profeffion  and  Na- 
tion in  life,  to  be  praftifed. 

In  Britain,  the  country  from  whence  our  anceftors 
firfl;  came,  are  various  clafTes  of  farmers :  generally 
they  are  common  farmers  and  gentlemen  farm.ers. 
The  latter  have  their  fle\v^rds,  bailiffs,  &:c.  The 
common  farmers  attend  to  and  conduct  their  own  bu- 
linefs, with  the  aid  of  their  children  or  a  head  fer- 
vant, — nothing  hke  the  impoling  overfeers  of  Ame- 
rica ;  andthcy  occaHonally  hire  what  other  labour  is 
neceHary. 

The 


COTTAGES  AND  COTTAGERS.      389 

The  flavc  being  done  with  in  America,  all  muft 
then  be  performed  by  hirelings  ;  who  are  diftinguilli- 
ed  into  labourers  2indfervanfs.  The  fervaiit  rcfides 
in  your  family  and  contrafts  to  ferve  you  by  the  year, 
feldom  for  lefs  than  half  a  year,  though  fometimes 
it  may  be  by  the  month.  He  receives  wages,  board 
and  lodging.  The  labourer  hires  to  work  by  the 
month,  the  day  or  the  job  ;  is  not  of  the  family,  but 
boards  and  lodges  abroad  as  he  can,  or  rents  a  fmall 
houfe,  working  for  you  or  others  occafionally,  for 
wages  only. 

Some  particulars  of  labour  and  the  economy  of 
conducting  farms  in  Europe  are  now  communicated, 
for  the  confideration  of  the  thoughtful  clafs  of  Ame- 
rican farmers,  efpecially  of  the  lefs  experienced  mid- 
dle and  fouthern  ftates ;  yet  there  are  farmers,  par- 
ticularly in  Chefter  county,  Pennfylvania,  and  as  I 
am  informed,  in  fome  of  the  Eallern  dates,  whofe 
practices  are  very  fuperior,  and  nearly  altogether  by 
the  aid  of  labourers  or  fervants,  as  above. 

It  is  deemed  advantageous  for  the  farmer  to  have 
fome  number  of  labourers  on  his  eftate  at  a  rent,  in 
a  fmall  very  confined  houfe  called  a  cottage  ;  and  the 
labourer  taking  it  is  called  a  cottager.  The  cottage 
is  a  great  convenience  and  comfort  to  the  cottager 
having  a  wife  ;  as  it  is  a  fnug  home  for  her  and  their 
little  cares  j  and  that  this  clafs  of  people  are  more 

happy 


39^  LA30UE^E.S    AND    SERVANTS; 

bappy  2j:d  independent  tlian  tbe  farmer  vrho  hires 
him,  is  evident  from  the  known  fact  that  they  marry 
more  than  the  farmers^,  as  9  to  6.  Nine  in  10 
marry,  and  of  farmers  but  6  in  i  o. 

The  experience  of  ages  fixes  the  cottage  to  be  very 
limited.  It  is  recommended  by  an  experienced 
farnnsr,  that  for  a  man  wife  and  children,  it  be  in  the 
ckar  1 2  by  16  {€£:t  area  for  the  ground  floor  ;  of 
■which  12  feet  fqnare  is  for  the  family  to  iit  in,  dine, 
Szc.  The  refl  of  the  area  of  the  ground  floor,  1 2  by 
4  f^t,  is  divided  for  iiairs  and  clofet  or  pantry.  The 
^eps  are  74  inches  rife,  9  inches  tread.  Over  the 
ground  floor  are  two  rooms,  for  beds,  partly  in  the 
roof,  and  3  feet  from  the  eaves  do-orn  to  the  fecond 
fioor ;  that  is  the  pitch  or  height  of  the  wall  or  fide 
is  i  I  feet  from  the  ground  floor  up  to  the  eaves ;  of 
which  3  feet  are  ia  the  fecond  flory  or  floor  of  rooms 
upftairs  ;  the  other  8  feet  are  the  pitch  of  the  room 
on  the  flrii  or  ground  floor.  A  fmall  garden  is  al- 
lowed to  the  cotELgc ;  which  gives  employment  and 
comfort  10  the  wife  and  children  :  but  not  an  inch  of 
ground  is  otherwife  allowed  for  czdti'vatiDn  of  any 
fiKt,  -K'hich  might  tend  10  draw  the  cottager  from 
the  farmer's  buflneis,  to  attend  to  an  enlarged  em- 
ployment of  his  ©■R'n,  when  he  would  become  a  poor 
fort  oiyarmer^  inferior  and  mean,  and  therefore  un- 
eafy  in  himfcif,  inflead  of  remaining  in  the  comf(K-t- 
sbk,  ufefal  and  fettled  alation  of  a  decent,  indq^en- 

dent 


COTTAGES  AND  COTTAGERS.      39I 

dent  and  contented  labourer.  Yet  in  America,  ra- 
ther than  to  allow  of  ground  for  them  to  cultivate  flax 
in  it,  fell  them  very  reafonably  the  flax  they  may 
want,  for  employing  the  wife  and  her  girls.  The 
rent  for  a  cottage  is  about  ten  dollars.  Some  cot- 
tagers keep  one — a  few,  two  cows  j  buying  for  thera 
winter  provender,  and  paying  for  pafturage  :  they 
are  fubjefts  of  the  wife. 

Many  inftances  there  are  of  a  fcandalous  negleft 
of  decency,  even  in  opulent  farmers,  in  their  not  build- 
ing a  fingle  necejfary,  or  houfe  of  office  ;  fuch  ought 
to  be  provided  wherever  there  \%  a  habitation,  be  the 
family  many  or  few,  rich  or  poor — the  cottage,  or 
the  hovel, — and  d\{o  fcreens,  of  fome  fort  or  other, 
efie(flual  for  decency  fake  between  the  beds  of  the  fa- 
mily children  of  both  fexes. 

On  a  fair  flatement  it  may  be  made  appear  that, 
dear  as  labour  is  in  America,  tillage  by  hired  labour- 
ers is  cheaper,  the  net  gain  greater,  than  when  the 
farmer  is  a  flave  to  his  flave  in  cultivating  his  ground, 
as  is  much  the  eafe  from  infinite  advantages  taken  of 
their  mafter  in  very  many  ways — the  little  work  done 
by  the  flaves, — the  burthen  of  their  families,  S:c. 
Alfo  the  parent  flaves  teaching  their  children  to  plun- 
der their  maflers  and  imlruaing  them  that  they  have 

a  right  to  do  it. 

A 


392 


LABOURERS    AND    SERVANTS; 


A  farmer  has  ^^  fiaves  :  men  6 

Women  6 

Boys  l  _ 
Girh  3 

Workers  i8 

Infants,  aged,  &:c.     ly 

35 

Expence  of  the  ^^.     Com,  meat,  clothes, 
bedding,  &c. 

Mifchief,  wafte,  pilfer,  &c. 


IXiUars. 
T200 

6oo 

i8oo 


If  inflead  of  the  t,^  (laves,  i8  of  them  workers, 
the  farmer  is  to  hire  labour,  few  hands  fuffice  :  the 
following  for  the  fame  farm,  might  be  a  large  pro- 
portion : 


Laboar  hired,  4  men 

4D0' 

3  TTomen 

120 

3  boys 

60 

2  girls 

30 

Workers          1 2 

6to 

Board  and  k)dgmg 

6cc 

I2ICJ 


With  thefe  are  |>eacf, 
quiet,  order,  economy,  &c. 
And  but  2  of  the  men,  and 
2  of  the  women  and  2  of  the 
boys  need  be  in  conflailt  pay, 
and  refiding  in  the  family; 
cottagers  or  labourers  doing 
the  reft  of  the  labour. 

Farmers 


COTTAGES  AND  COTTAGERS.      393 

Farmers  who  hire  all  their  labour,  have  with  it 
the  attentions  of  a  manager,  bailie,  or  head  fervant ; 
and  occafionally  the  labour  of  cottagers ;  which  al- 
together duly  attended  to  introduces  an  orderly  and 
necelTary  economy : — there  then  is  not  an  idle  hand, 
nor  eater,  nor  waiter  yielding  nothing  profitable  or 
advantageous.  The  farmer  having  Haves,  generally 
has  fupernumerary  hands,  eating,  wafting,  making 
confufion,  &:c.  the  year  through  without  abatement. 
He  maintains  twenty  to  pull  down  or  extinguifh 
what  other  twenty  toilers  in  good  works  had  pro- 
duced with  fatisfa^tion  and  repute. 

A  writer  who  has  treated  well  of  hired  fervants, 
labourers  and  cottagers,  fets  out  with  the  important 
obfervation  that  nothing  is  more  ruinous  to  farmers 
than  their  keeping  more  fervants  than  they  have  a 
real  occafion  for ;  and  that  there  muft  be  a  fixed 
eftablifhment  o^ fervants,  proportioned  to  the  extent 
and  nature  of  the  farm  :  but  then  this  fixed  eftablifh- 
ment  is  not  fufHcient  for  the  whole  feafon  of  employ- 
ment ;  and  there  are  times  and  operations  which  re- 
quire additional  labour.  The  farmer  is  fortunate 
enough  who  can  then  find  hands  for  his  purpofe ; 
for,  generally,  when  one  farmer  wants  additional 
aid,  others  alfo  want  it.  He  concludes,  there  are 
but  three  fources  from  whence  the  farmer  can  ex- 
pert affiftance, — from  towns,  villages,  or  cottages. 
The  befl  labourers  are  from  cottages.     Villagers  arc 

better 


394  LABOURERS    AND    SERVANTS  J 

better  than  townfmen,  thefe  lafl  being  more  wanton, 
yicious,  idle  and  inexpert. 

If,  fays  he,  the  farmer  is  fo  happy  as  to  have  fe- 
veral  well  peopled  cottages  upon  his  land,  there  will 
be  no  want  of  hands  on  extraordinary  occafions. 
The  ereclion  of  cottages  is  therefore  of  importance 
to  the  farmer  :  but  he  adds,  it  is  neceffary  for  both 
parties  that  they  be  on  the  beft:  terms.  That  the 
cottage  family  be  regarded  as  a  part  of  his  own,  in 
attentions  to  them  ;  and  that  they  look  up  to  him  as 
their  friend.  But  as  fome  may  be  ungrateful  and 
Jittle  difpofed  to  prefer  their  landlord,  they  may  be 
held  by  a  condition  that  in  cafe  they  do  not  give  their 
aifiHance  on  preHing  occafions,  they  fliculd  pay  fo 
much  more. 

In  fpare  corners  of  the  cftate  that  are  dry  and 
iheltered,  near  good  water,  cottages  fliould  be  built, 
and  the  cottagers  made  eafy,  with  avoiding  however 
a.11  excefs  of  indulgence.  About  6400  or  66co  fquare 
feet  of  ground  arefufhcient  for  a  cottage  garden,  or 
a  fquare  of  80  to  90  or  100  feet.  There  are  cot- 
tages without  any  garden  :  but  it  was  obferved  by  a 
clergyman  who  relided  in  a  village  amongfl;  cottagers 
that  during  thirty  years  of  his  attention,  cottagers 
who  had  a  garden  were  generally  fober,  induftrious 
and  healthy ;  and  thofe  who  had  no  garden,  were 
often  drunken,  lazy,  vicious  and  ailing. 

Cottagers 


COTTAGES  AND  COTTAGERS.      395 

Cottagers  are  limited  in  fuel,  and  are  therefore 
faving  of  it.  Their  fire  place  on  the  firfl  floor  is 
but  enough  for  their  frugal  and  plain  cookery  ;  and 
in  the  parent's  room  above  flairs  the  hearth  is  but 
little  more  than  will  hold  a  chaffmg  difli  of  coals, 
ufed  in  ficknefs  and  to  vent  the  room.  Heat  con- 
veyed by  a  ftove  flue  from  a  fire  below,  would  be 
fafer  and  more  frugal. 

The  firfl:  floor  of  cottages  ought  to  be  raifed  8  to 
14  inches  above  the  common  furface.  A  flaelter  or 
fmall  roof  over  the  out  door  is  convenient  and  com- 
fortable.    Some  tools  may  be  flieltered  there. 

The  time  for  changing  fervants  in  England  is  well 
fixed  on  Martinmas  the  22  J  November.  A  more  eli- 
gible time  it  is  faid  cannot  be  devifed.  The  flranger 
fervants  then  enter  in  a  fcene  of  tranquillity ;  and 
have  all  the  winter  to  become  familiarly  acquainted. 

The  accurate  Mr.  Marjhdl  fays,  that  on  the  ma- 
tureft  calculation,  the  yearly  expence  of  hirelings  is 
thus : 

A  many  in  tlie  hoiife  co^%£,  35  fterling  ;  of  which 

wages  are  .  .  .       £.  10  a  year. 

A  loy  cods  ^•23  of  which  wages  3 

A  man,  at  day  labor,  even  if  he  works  every  day 

is  but  .  .  .  27    10     o 

A  hfiy^  ,  .  ,  13 


396  POINTING    ROOFS, 

So  that  a  man  in  ihe  krufe  is  more  than  by  the  day    _^7   i  o     o 

befides  rainy  days.  .  . 

A  baj  in  the  houfcj  more  than  by  the  day  10     c     o 

AVhere  there  are  more  than  one  cottage  requiCte 
on  a  farm,  it  is  advantageous  that  two  be  united  ; 
by  which  the  conduct  of  the  families  is  more  public, 
and  their  underhand  or  fecret  improper  movements 
are  feen,  difcountenanced  or  prevented :  they  are 
checks  on  each  other  in  what  is  difadvantageous  to 
the  farmer  or  themfelves ;  and  thereby  abufes  are 
prevented,  at  the  fame  time  that  they  are  at  hand  to 
aiBil  each  other  occafionallr. 


Of  Pointing  Rcc/s  cf  Houfes, 

The  difficulty  of  preventing  driving  rains  from 
entering  where  the  fhingling  of  houfes  and  chimnies 
join,  or  between  houfe  and  houie  or  one  part  of  a 
roof  with  another,  has  been  forely  experienced,  and 
complained  of  without  finding  the  means  of  relief. 
Many  fubftances  and  modes  of  curing  the  caufes  of 
complaint,  have  been  tried  without  effecl.  Brick- 
layer's mortar  alone,  mortar  mixed  with  black- 
fmith's  cinders — with  brickduil — with  plafter  of 
Paris^-of  plafterer's  common  plafler,  without  as 
well  as  with  hair,  all  to  no  purpofe :  the  very  firfl 
rain  that  fell  on  the  work,  fweliing  the  fhingles  and 
preffing  them  clolJb  to  the  brick  work,  uniformly 

cracked 


POINTING    ROOFS.  397 

cracked  and  generally  forced  out  ferae  part  of  the 
oppc^mg  fubftance,  called  pointing ;  and  thus  left 
openings  for  every  future  rain  to  enter,  and  the 
frofts  of  the  fucceeding  -winters  completed  the  de- 
ftru6lion. 

The  defire  formed  by  my  next  door  neighbour, 
in  pointing,  was  to  find  out  an  elastic  fubflance  that 
when  preffed  on  by  a  fwelling  of  the  fhingles,  fhould 
give  way,  and  when  the  ihingles  became  di-y  again, 
Ciould  by  its  own  elafticity  return  to  its  former  clofe 
flate.  It  alfo  was  necelTary  that  fuch  fubftance 
jQiould  be  able  to  refifl:  the  injurious  elfeft  of  driving 
rains  in  not  eafily  giving  way  or  decaying. 

The  tow  of  hemp  my  neighbour  found  to  have 
all  the  requifite  elafticity ;  and  when  defended  by  a 
coat  of  glazier's  putty  was  proof  againft  the  wea- 
ther for  feven  years  that  it  had  then  lately  been  tri- 
ed by  him,  although  it  was  very  imperfectly  pointed 
with  the  tow  and  putty  ;  fo  that  it  required  to  be 
renewed  ;  he  therefore  directed  it  to  be  better  done, 
thus  :  the  joint  or  jun£lion  between  the  lliingles  and 
brick  work  was  well  filled  with  tow  forced  in  by  a 
bricklayer's  trowel,  and  kept  down  half  an  inch  be- 
low  the  upper  furface  of  the  Jhingles  ;  then  putty  was 
frejfed  down  with  the  trowel  on  the  tow  ;  and  laftly, 
/craped  off  fmooth,  even  with  the  fliingles, — fo  that 
no  part  remained  on  the  top  of  the  fliingles,  but 

even 


398  FLAX. 

even  with  them.  Several  rains  have  happened 
fince,  yet  his  houfe  proves  perfeftly  tight ;  without 
the  leaft  crack  in  the  pointing,  or  deviation  of  the 
fluffing  from  the  (late  in  which  it  was  placed.  The 
putty  when  partially  dried,  is  yet  fufficiently  tough 
to  admit  of  being  prelTed  by  the  wet,  fwoln  fliin- 
gles,  without  cracking :  and  he  took  fome  putty, 
ufed  on  the  former  trial  out  of  a  joint  or  bend  when 
it  had  been  there  above  a  year,  which  ftill  retained 
its  toughnefs,  and  had  not  even  then  acquired  the 
ftone-like  hardnefs  that  it  Ihews  on  old  glazed  win- 
dow fafhes. 

The  pointing  (hould  be  done  in  dry,  fettled  wea- 
ther, that  the  putty  may  acquire  fome  degree  of 
hardnefs  in  a  hot  fun,  four  or  five  days,  left  a  rain 
by  occafioning  the  fliingles  to  fwell  fliould  prefs  with 
too  much  force  on  the  putty.  Soaking  the  tow  in 
oil  would  be  an  improvement,  he  thinks,  if  it  fhould 
hot  deprive  the  tow  of  its  elafticity — becaufe  then 
if  any  accident  occafioned  the  putty  to  fcale  off  or 
crack,  the  tow  filled  with  oil  vi^ould  be  indefl:ru<5tible 
by  the  weather,  and  would  keep  the  houfe  always 
tight. 

FLA  X, 

The  hufbandmen  of  America  generally  pay  fome 
attention  in  the  cultivation  oi  jiax.     Bnt  it  is  noto- 
rious 


FLAX.  399 

rious  that  where  tobacco  is  taken  into  cultivation, 
not  only  flax,  but  even  bread  and  generally  all  other 
articles  of  hufbandry  are  more  or  Icfs  negle^led,  for 
giving  a  preference  in  labour  and  attention  to  to- 
bacco. Both  of  thefe  articles  impoveriili  ground ; 
but  then  the  flax,  requifite,  needs  only  a  fmall  por- 
tion of  ground,  and  this  can  be  readily  changed  for 
other  ground,  and  is  eafily  manured  and  then  culti- 
vated in  ameliorating  crops,  for  relloring  the  foil ; 
— ^befides  it  is  a  neceifary  article  amongit  the  great 
mafs  of  farmers  and  country  labourers.  It  therefore 
mud  be  produced  ;  though  folely  for  home  confump- 
tion — not  a  thread  for  exportation. 

If,  fays  a  farmer  attentive  in  cultivating  flax,  feed 
is  to  be  raifed,  fow  only  one  bufliel  an  acre :  if 
limn  is  the  obje(5l,  fow  two  bufliels.  But  unlefs  the 
ground  is  previoufly  well  prepared  by  an  ameliorat- 
ing fallow  crop,  with  a  full  manuring,  weeding, 
and  fl:irring,  fow  not  at  all. 

Flax  is  faid  to  be  better  for  Handing  till  the  bark 
of  the  plant  is  pretty  well  matured,  though  not 
fully  fo ;  that  the  lint  may  admit  of  being  fplit  into 
perfect  fibres  the  mod  minute. 

Tobacco  itfelf,  in  its  culture,  will  give  a  very 
clean  fallow  ;  but  nothing  exceeds  p(ptatoe,  turnip, 

or 


400  SLEDS CABBAGE    PLANTS. 

or  pea-fallow  crops,   when  hoed  with  fpirit ;   and 
they  alfo  are  family  comforts. 


SLEDS, 

A  common,  handy,  light  Jled  is  in  univerfal  cfti- 
mation  in  Yorkfliire;  and  it  is  in  continual  ufe,  both 
in  winter  and  fummcr.  It  carries  harrows  and  other 
implements,  or  rough  pieces  of  fmall  timber,  to  and 
from  the  houfe  and  fields.  On  tender  ground,  tur- 
nips, &c.  are  carried,  rather  than  in  carts.  They 
have  two :  one  fmall,  for  one  horfe ;  another  for 
two  or  more  horfes  or  oxen ;  which  is  larger. 

CABBAGE    PLANTS. 

Compared  cabbages  i ran/planted,  with  others  not 
once  moved.  The  unmoved  grew  and  were  better 
than  the  moved.     8  An.  1 1 8. 

Propofed :  that  nearly  equal  portions  of  cabbage 
feed  and  rich  moift  foil  be  put  together  in  a  box  or 
pot  till  the  feeds  fprout,  or  only  fhow  their  white 
pips.  Hills  of  earth  keep  clean,  and  jufl  on  ftir- 
ring  the  ground  fow  the  feeds  and  foil  together  in 
the  hills,  thin  j  and  as  the  plants  grow,  thin  them 
to  one.  Of  other  plants,  tranfplant,  when  of  the 
ufual  fize  ;  and  compare  them,  when  full  grown. 

FAT 


40 1 


FAT    CATTLE. 

Oxen  made  half  fat,  or  in  good  plight,  on  grafs 
or  turnips,  are  then  very  highly  and  foon  finifhed 
in  France,  upon  a  four  food  thus  prepared :  rye 
meal  (buckwheat  or  maize  meal  may  be  tried)  with 
water  is  made  into  a  paste,  which  in  a  few  days^^r- 
ments  and  htcoTv^.^,  four ;  this  is  then  diluted  with 
water,  and  thickened  zvitb  hay,  cut  into  chaff,  which 
the  oxen  fometimes  refufe  the  firft  day,  but  when 
dry  they  drink  and  prefer  'v{qq  All  the  French  huf- 
bandmen  are  decidedly  of  foK^nioa  they  fatten  much 
better  becaufe  of  [he  acidity.  They  give  it  rhrice 
a  day,  and  a  large  ox  tiius  eat  22lbs.  a  day.  Maize 
meal,  or  maize  fleeped  till  four  Ihould  be  tried. 
This  four  mefs  is  given  during  the  lad  three  weeks 
of  their  fattening ;  and  they  eat  about  74-  buihels 
of  meal,  value  four  dollars.  Their  cattle  are  of  a 
cream  colour,  and  are  very  excellent  and  greatly 
admired  by  Mr.  Young.  Their  fat  oxen  weigh  900 
to  9 20 lbs.  an  excellent  fize. 


C  c  NOTES 


NOTES    AND 


^OTES  jiND  INTIMATIONS, 

"  The  whabitaTtis  of  the  inland  country  have  more  in- 
**  tegrtiy,  fimplkity^  and  getierojity  ;  and  in  all  re- 
^^  fpscfs  baie  -mare  amiable  manners^  than  tlxtfe  of 
'•  tbefea  cDOsi.  ^he  latter  have  contraded  a  traf- 
*•*■  fi eking  keenfpiriij  naturally  i/iimicaJ  to  the  virtues 
*^  founded  ex  TnoderaSam  and  di/inierestednefs,** 
Vol.  Syr. 

"  An  apparently  grc"^  advantage  J  ivould  be  a  real 
"  e^cily  if  it  fended  t<i  T^-'Jich  the  morals  <f  the  people  : 
"  en  wlatb  prirsciple  Kiiyoggyftf  very  little  value 
"  on  a  fieurijhing  state  of  Commerce  ;  as  he  corir- 
"  cerves  its  most  general  effects  are,  introducing  an 
**  inordinate  hve  of  money ^  debafing  the  generaus 
^^  Jentiments  ef  the  foul,  and  familiarizing  it  uith 
^^  fraud  and  carcumveBiion.**  Rur.  Econ.  This  can 
only  touch  the  Ivwer  order  of  traders  :  it  refleds  mt 
en  merchants y  "wbofe  friruiples  and  manners  are  ami- 
able and  exemplary. 

VEAL    S. 

la  fciliag  veals  to  butckers  their  higgling  w2Li  ex- 
tremely diikgreeable ;  and  to  avdd  it  1  fometimes 
either  at  once  broke  o3",  or  gave  up  to  their  oSers. 
At  Icagth,  after  weighing  veals  killed  for  my  family, 

I 


INTIMATIONS. 


403 


I  fixed  on  a  price  by  live  weight,  at  which  to  fell. 
The  butchers  at  firft  refuied  to  be  fixed  at  any  rate  ; 
they  afterwards  came  to,  and  agreed  at  3d.  five 
weight  J  3  cents  3  mills  -^V* 

A  veal  alive  weighed  146^' 

— The  four  quarters      70  '  ' 

which  is  within  ^^  of  half  the  live  weight : 

At  3^.  live  weight,  this  veal  would  coft  them  T,6/i 
6d. :  but,  for  fueh,  they  ufed  to  give  me  ^2/.  to  t,'^/* 
on  the  foot.  The  firft  fold  by  live  weight  were  4 
veals;  medium  live  weight,  1334,  which  averaged 
33/.  2d.  a  veal.  They  ufually  fold  at  7^/.  fcarcely 
any  part  under  6d*  foraetimes  74  and  8^.  Their 
gain  was  above  40  per  cent.  Lord  Kaims  fays,  but- 
chers gain  but  5  per  cent,  in  Scotland.  They  diiliked 
the  method  by  live  weight  j  becaufe  of  the  certainty 
reducing  ufual  profits,  gained  from  their  fuperior 
/kill  in  efiimating  the  weight  and  value  of  veals. 

H    A    M    S. 


1788.  Dec.  2 — 20  of  my  family  hams, 

trimmed,  weighed  green, 

1789.  June  30 — They  weighed,  when 

fulllnioked. 

Evaporation 

C  c  2 


ft. 

ft. 

321 

or 

ea 

ch 

16/^ 

2s6 

I2v5 

65 

The 

404  N0TE6    AND 

The  lofs  cf  v.-eight  20^  p.  cent,  or  about  fth. 
Dec.  22.  A  tenant's  hams  ;    2  weighed, 

preen  and  trimmeu  ai 

Aug.  1 1 .  The  fame  when  irnoked  26 

Evaporation  5  or  16  p.  cent. 


The  tenant's-  w^rc  net  fo  much  fmoked  or  dried, 
as  he  cured  ihem  for  fale  and  to  weigh. 


FAMin"  PICKLED  BEEF. 

"  Two  pounds  brcivn  fugar  are  mixed  with  a  quar- 
ter pound  oi  fait  pet  re  pounded  very  fine.  One  half 
of  it  is  rubbed  together  with  a  little  fmcfaJt  over  the 
beef.  Four  gallons  of  brine,  bearing  an  egg,  are 
boiled  and  ikimmed  ;  and  when  cold^  the  remainder 
of  xhc  fugar  and  nitre  is  added.  The  beef  is  then 
funk  in  the  pickle,  and  kept  down  with  a  weight.** 

POCOCK's  PICKLE  for  MEAT. 

Admiral  Pocock's  pickle  is  greatly  preferred, 
when  applied  to  family  beef,  pork  or  m.utton. — It 
is  thus  made  :  [T'^j/^r  4  gallons  ;  Mufcovadoyl/^^;-  for 
melaffes)  i[\h./alt  petj-e  2  ounces  ;y^//,  the  bay  or 
large  fort,  61bs.  Boil  all  together  in  an  iron  pot  or 
kettle,  and  fkira  it  repeatedly  as  long  as  any  fcum 
rifcs  ;  then  take  off  the  pot  to  ftand  till  the  liquor 
is  cold.     The  meat  being  placed  in  the  velTel  meant 

to 


INTIMATIONS.  405 

to  hold  it,  pour  the  cold  pickle  on  the  meat  till  it  is 
all  covered,  and  in  that  ftate  keep  it  for  family  ufe. 
The  beef,  after  lying  in  the  pickle  ten  weeks,  has 
been  found  as  good  as  if  it  had  not  been  faked  three 
days,  and  tender  as  a  chicken.  If  the  meat  is  to  be 
preferved  a  confiderable  time,  the  pickle  mufl  be 
boiled  once  in  two  months ;  fivimming  off  all  that 
rifes,  and  throwing  in  during  the  boiling  2  ounces  of 
fugar,  and  half  a  pound  of  common y^///  .*  thus  the 
fame  pickle  will  hold  good  for  12  months.  This 
pickle  is  incomparable  for  curing  haim,  tongues  and 
hung  beef.— VJhen  tongues  and  hung  beef  are  taken 
out  of  the  pickle,  clean  and  dry  the  pieces :  then  put 
them  in  paper  bags,  and  hang  them  up  in  a  dry 
warm  place.  Some  who  have  tried  this  method, 
choofe  their  meat  falter ;  and  inftead  of  6,  ufe  8  or 
9lbs.  of  fait.  In  very  hot  weather  it  is  necelTary,  be- 
fore the  meat  is  put  to  the  pickle,  to  rub  it  well 
over  with  fait,  and  let  it  lie  for  one,  two  or  three 
hours,  till  the  bloody  juices  run  off.  If  the  meat 
in  this  cafe  is  in  the  lead:  tainted  before  it  is  put  to 
the  pickle,  it  will  be  entirely  fpoiled  in  a  day's  time, 
in  hot  weather. 

tT  Pocock's  pickle  is  found  fo  valuable,  that  no 
family  ought  ever  to  be  without  it  :  and  perfons 
known  to  me,  keep  it  conitantly  ready.  The  har- 
nefs-tub  always  abounds  in  it,  ready  for  new  fupplics 

of 


4o6  NOTES    AND 

of  meat  to  be  immerfed ;  and  it  is  almofl  a  fine 
non  in  houfewifery  wirh  them ! 

A  prefent  of  fat  hogs  was  made  to  a  perfon  u 
ignorant  of  any  method  of  curing  hams  and  bacou 
bat  the  hogs  were  cut  up,  and  the  pieces  ivithout 
being  at  al/falted,  were  put  into  the  family  harnefs- 
tub,  which  contained  the  remaining  brine  of  beef 
cured  according  to  Pccock.  After  being  in  the  brine 
full  6  weeks,  the  hams  and  bacon  were  hung  up  and 
fmoked  as  ufual  till  enough.  I  ate  of  them,  and 
fcarcely  ever  met  with  any  better.  They  were 
greatly  fuperior  to  haras  commonly  called  "  good 
hams."  The  pickle  in  this  cafe  was  according  to  the 
above  receipt.  Dn  falting  and  then  pickling  is  the 
moft  commonly  practifed  :  but  fome  houfewives  fay, 
dry  falting  hardens  meat.  It  is  advifable  to  fmoke 
hams  early ^  that  they  may  be  cured  before  the  ap- 
proach of  fpring :  the  fame  of  bacon ;  and  green 
hickory^  fmothered  with  a  due  portion  of  faw-duil  or 
tanner's  bark,  makes  the  fweeteft  fmoke  for  hams,  as 
I  am  informed ;  but  for  kiln-drying  malt,  I  experi- 
enced green  hickory  alone  to  be  much  preferable  to 
dry  oak,  a(h  and  locuft. 

^  FJMILT  DRIED  BEEF. 

"  Rub  the  Beef  with  a  mixture  of  i\h/ugar,  -l\h, 
cifalt'petre  and  a  XiitXtfalt.     The  nitre,  cfpecially, 

in 


INTIMATIONS.  4.07 

in  a  very  fine  powder.  The  beef  is  to  remain  3 
days  in  a  tub  ;  and  is  then  again  rubbed  with  a  little 
more  of  the  fame  ingredients.  The  beef,  rel-urned 
to  the  tub,  is  to  lye  two  or  three  days  more  ;  and  is 
then  hung  up  to  dry.  It  feems  this  is  meant  to  be 
dried  without  fmoke  :  but  others  fmoke  it  very  lightly 
and  then  hang  it,  expofed  to  wind  and  air,  in  a  dry 
room. — Cellars  and  all  damp  places  are  improper  for 
keeping  meat,  either  fait  or  frefli." 

WATER   BISCUIT. 

A  great  efTential,  neceffary,  is  to  avoid  drowning 
the  flour.  Give  water,  a  Httle  and  little  at  a  time. 
The  mafs  of  dough  is  to  be  worked  up  very  dry,  un- 
der the  hand :  fo  that  when  all  is  done  that  can  be 
by  the  hands,  towards  gathering  the  materials  toge- 
ther in  a  firm  mafs,  it  ftiil  is  in  parts  dry  and  in  cracks 
with  flour  here  and  there  untaken  up.  The  rude 
mafs  is  then  committed  to  a  brake  (or  heavy  beacer) 
with  which  it  is  worked  a  great  deal,  until  it  becomes 
fmooth  and  folid,  without  any  further  addition  of 
water.  The  oven  is  heated  to  bake  quick  as  may  be 
without  burning.  Thefe  points  obferved,  prevent 
flintinefs. 

VINEGAR, 

"  Ten  gallons  of  apple  juice  new  from  the  prefs, 
are  fuflered  to  ferment, /i///y;  which  may  be  in  about 

two 


4o8  KOTES    AND 

two  weeks.  Add  then  8  gallons  of  like  juice,  that 
is  new  ;  for  producing  ^feccnd  fermentation.  In  two 
weeks  more,  add  anoihcr  like  w/fvi'  quantity,  for  pro- 
ducing a  third  fermentation.  This  third  fermeuta- 
tioH  is  material.*  Now  flop  the  bunghole  with  an 
empty  bottle,  or  flalk,  the  neck  down.  Expofe  it  to 
the  fun  for  fome  time. — ^Vhen  the  vinegar  is  come, 
draiv  (ff  one  half  mto  a  vinegar  cafk,  and  fet  it  in  a 
cool  place,  above  ground,  for  ufe  when  dear.  With 
the  oiber  half'm  the  firil  ca/k,  proceed  to  make  more 
vinegar  in  the  fame  method.  Thus  always  one  calk 
is  to  make  in  ;  and  another  to  ufe  from. 

In  preparing  malt  wort  for  making  vinegar,  it  is 
neither  boiled  nor  hopped ;  but  only  fermented  and 
fet  by  the  fire  or  in  the  fun.  A  few  days  produce 
it,  fays  farmer  EUis.  Suppofe  it  managed  as  the 
apple  juice,  above,  for  producing  the  three  fermenta' 
tims  r' 

The  plant  Tarragon,  called  by  the  French,  Estra- 
gon^  gives  to  vinegar  the  mod  excellent  flavor,  with- 
out difcolouring  it.     It  is  propagated  by  the  plants, 

and 

*  In  crder  that  the  vinaut  fermentation  {hall  proceed  fully 
to  the  acciousy  it  is  requilite  that  there  be  a  temperate  degree  c£ 
hrat ;  a  qoantit}'  cf  vatfcrmenitd  mnalage  amd  acul  maffffr,  filch  as 
i  ariar j'^jid  xht  free  accfft  of  external  air.  Thus  circumflanced, 
the  liquor  foon  pafles  into  the  arefoKt  fermentation,  and  be- 
ccmes  vinegar  ;  favs  the  Edinb.  Difpeat  an.  1 794,  p.  6. 


INTIMATIONS,'  409 

and  It  would  be  well  to  introduce  it  into  our  gardens 
from  Europe. 

Tarragon  jufl:  as  it  is  about  to  bloom,  is  ftript  of 
its  leaves,  and  a  gallon  of  beft  vinegar  is  put  to  every 
pound  of  Tarragon  leaves,  in  a  ilone  jug  or  demi- 
john, and  left  to  ferment  14  days.  It  is  then  run 
through  a  flannel  bag.  To  every  four  gallons  of  the 
vinegar  put  half  an  ounce  of  ilinglafs  diffolved  in 
cyder  :  mix  all  well  and  put  it  into  bottles  to  fland  a 
month  to  fine  :   then  rack  it  off,  and  bottle  it  for  ufe. 

LOAF-BREAD. 

A  fimple  and  much  approved  method  of  making 
good  white  bread,  is  given  by  Mr.  Doflie,  thus : 


"  Fine  flour 

lb. 
6     : 

oz. 

Water  2'  pints,  or 
Yeafl:,  liquid. 
Salt 

2      : 
0     : 
0     ; 

;       8 

4  or  8  fpoonsful 

2 

8     :     14 

The  water  is  ivarm,  not  hot.*  A  part  of  it  is  put 
to  the  yeaft,  and  well  mixed  by  beating  them  together 

with 

*  A  neighbour,  nice  in  bread,  obferving  the  fine  bread  in  my 
family  made  of  dry  or  c.ke  yeaft,  was  prefented  with  a  bottle 
of  the  yeaft  ;  but  afterwards  complained  the  dough  could  not 
be  made  to  rife,     ^htfcalded  the  yeaft. 


410  .  NOTES    AND 

with  a  whiik.  The  fait  is  put  to  the  other  part  of 
the  warm  water,  and  flirred  till  diiTolved.  Thea 
put  both  the  quantities  of  the  fluid,  gradually  to  the 
flour ;  and  knead  the  mafs  well,  till  the  whole  is  per- 
fectly mixed.  The  dough  thus  made,  (lands  four  or 
five  hours  :  that  is  till  the  critical  moment  of  its  ht- 
m^  fully  rif en  y  yet  before  it  falls  any  or  more^hanjufl 
to  be  perceived.  It  is  now  formed  into  loaves,  and 
immediately  fet  in  the  oven.  Baking  it  properly  is  a 
difficulty,  to  thofe  not  well  praclifed :  for  this,  the 
oven  is  to  be  made  hot  as  may  be  without  burning 
the  crufl.  If  a  green  vegetable  turns  black  when 
put  in,  the  oven  will  burn  the  bread  ;  and  it  is  then 
to  ftand  open  till  the  heat  has  fomewhat  abated. 
The  next  care  is  to  keep  the  mouth  of  the  oxtn  well 
clofed  till  the  bread  has  rjfen  to  \ts  full  height.  The 
time  for  this  may  be  two  or  three  hours.  After 
which,  and  ?iot  before,  the  oven  may  be  opened  for 
viewing  the  bread,  at  pleafure,  to  fee  that  it  is  baked 
without  being  burnt  or  too  crufty.  If  the  mouth  o£ 
the  oven  be  not  i-ei-y  clofely  ftopt  at  the  first  putting 
in  the  bread,  andy^  keit  till  the  bread  is  fully  rifen, 
it  will  flatten  and  not  be  fo  light,  as  otherwife  it 
would  be. — When  the  bread  is  baked  enough,  the 
above  ingredients  will  have  loil  about  i  lb.  i  oz.  fays 
Mr.  Doflie  ;  which  leaves  y  lb.  12  cz.  of  well  baked 
bread."  A  French  author  (Delifle's  ArithmeticJ 
fays  bread  ought  to  be  ~  more  than  the  flour  alone ; 
and  he  appears  accurate.     But  do  the  French  bake 

fo 


Intimations.  411 

fo  brown  and  dry  as  the  Englifli,  who  fometimes  burn 
and  chip  the  cruft. 


EABDV-CAKE  or  BREAD. 

The  good  people  of  Long-Ifland  call  this  pot-afh 
cake  or  handy-cake ;  and  make  it  thus :  wheaten 
ilour  2lbs ;  fugar  4lb,  have  added  to  them  a  tea 
fpoonful  of  fait  of  tartar  heaped,  or  any  other  form 
of  pot  or  pearl  alh.  The  potafh  is  diflblved  in  a  lit- 
tle water  before  it  is  put  to  the  other  materials ; 
and  the  fugar  is  ftirred  into  a  pint  of  milk  fthe  bet- 
ter if  the  milk  is  four  or  coagulated)  and  being  freed 
from  lumps  the  whole  is  mixed  and  kneaded  toge- 
ther :  this  is  done  in  a  few  minutes ;  and  the  dough 
is  then  instantly  ftt  for  rolling  out  and  baking.  To  be 
light  cake,  it  is  neceiTary  that  it  be  baked  brijkly. 
X\vz  first  step  therefore,  is  to  kindle  a  fire,  that  fuf- 
ficient  of  good  coals  may  be  feafonably  provided. 
Thus  the  dough,  though  flat  and  unrifen  when  put 
on  the  baking  pan,  will  be  puffed  up  during  the 
baking  into  a  fine,  fpungy  cake.  Eggs  mull  be 
avoided :  they  would  entangle  and  obftruft  the 
rifmg  ;  it  is  therefore  held  as  a  maxim  that  the  plain- 
er and  fimpler  the  materials  are,  the  better  is  the 
cake  ;  fome  therefore  add  crea?n  rather  than  butter. 
More  of  potafh  than  is  allowed  by  the  rule, 
would  give  an  alkaline  tafte  and  render  it  heavy. 
The  potalii  raufc  not  be  in  its  caufHc  flate,  but  is 

finl 


41-  NOTES    AND 

firfl  expofed  to  the  atmofphere  long  enough,  in  a 
jar  or  the  like,  to  be  diiTolved  and  become  mild. 
— By  omitting  the  fugar,  if  not  alfo  the  butter,  the 
fo  much  admired  muffins  may  be  produced  :  at  any 
rate  it  gives  a  light  wholfome  bread  more  fpeedily 
than  in  any  other  method.  The  potafli  or  fait  of 
tartar  is  moft  excellent  for  health,  efpecially  of  peo- 
ple apt  to  be  affefted  with  flow  or  bilious  fevers, 
in  flat  countries.  This  cake  is  noticed  and  recom- 
mended by  fome  ingenious  philofophical  gentlemen: 
for  which  fee  8  vol.  Monthly  Magazine,  London, 
anno.  i8co.  p.  873.  Some  to  the  ingredients  add 
butter  4  lb. 

SHEEP. 

Sheep  do  not  fuffer  by  being  tied  up  ;  but  fatten 
extremely  well  on  peas,  oats,  foil-cake,  maize  meal 
and  probably  flaxfeed  jelly).  The  ewes  have  pea- 
ftraw  and  even  oats,  when  they  lamb;  fays  Mr, 
Toofey.  Y  ox  foiling  and  stall-feeding /keep,  fee  An- 
nals 1 1  vol.  30  ;  in  Germany.  Pa.  t^j,  in  SuiEFolk; 
and  12  vol.  234;  14  vol.  133  ;  in  Canady  17  vol. 
287. 

MANURE. 

Fixed  air,  fays  Mr.  Amos,  abounds  in  calcarious 
and  alkaline  earths  and  falts  j   from  ^  to  |  of  their 

whole 


INTIMATIONS.  41'5 

whole  fubftance  :  from  whence  it  is  that  they  are 
manures ;  and  they  attrad  this  air  from  the  atmof- 
phere.  That  it  is  fo  is  evident  from  the  abundance 
of  it  that  vegetables  yield  in  putrefaftion.  This 
fixed  air  confills  of  earth,  water,  acids,  and  phlo- 
giston. A  tim  oi  caustic  lime  attra(fi:s  ten  to  15  hun- 
dred pounds  of  it. — Limeftone,  100  parts,  crude, 
contains  about  40  of  fixed  air,  ^^  o^  calcarioits  matter, 
and  yip^  of  water.  Calcining  it,  muft  difcharge  the 
water,  and  moll  of  the  fixed  air  which  is  fo  impor- 
tant to  the  mafs,  as  a  manure. — But  are  not  thefe 
again  reflored  to  the  lime,  in  Hacking  or  after  it  is 
flacked  ? — He  fays  further,  that  quicklime  unites  the 
watery  and  oily  parts  of  foil,  juft  as  it  forms  foap. 
"  It  is,  he  continues,  alfo  in  favour  of  lime,  that, 
expofed  to  the  air  it  fooner  or  later  acquires  its  ori- 
ginal weight :  fo  that  the  foil  on  which  quicklime 
is  fpread,  acquires  a  great  increafe  of  matter ;  the 
virtue  of  the  lune  consisting  chiefly  in  its  power  of  at- 
traclion.'*  Am.  Drill.  Hulb.  26.  44.  45. — It  is 
faid  in  America,  that  6  or  8  bulhels  raw  powder 
of  lime  stone,  manures  an  acre  of  land,  well.  I  am 
by  now  informed  of  this ;  when  I  can  no  longer 
make  experiments  of  the  kind. 

CALVES. 

Calves  running  with  the  cows  till  6  or  9  months 
old,  get  a  good  growth.     But  the  bed  dairy  method 


414  NOTES    AND 

is  this : — the  calves  fuck  a  week  or  two,  according 
to  their  llrength  :  new  milk  in  the  pail  is  then  given 
them,  a  few  meah :  then  new  and  Jkimmed  milk, 
mixt,  a  few  meah  :  then  fkim  mlk  alone ;  or  por- 
ridge made  with  milk,  water ^  meal  of  oats,  &:c. 
until  cheeie-making  begins:  after  wiiioh.  whey por- 
ridge  ;  or  fweet  whey  in  the  field  ;  being  careful  to 
houfe  them  at  nighl,  till  w^arm  weather  is  fettled, 
Marih.  Midland  Counties,  338.  Soft  fweet  hay 
and  tender  cut  grafs  may  be  laid  in  their  way  y  with 
a  mafs  o(falt  clay,  as  a  hck. 


BUGS,  CALLED  CHINCHES. 

'•  The  French  fay,  take  rectified  fpirit  of  wine 
iVq,  fpirit  of  turpentine  ilb,  camphor  loz.  Difiblve, 
entirely,  the  camphor  in  the  mixt  liquor  ;  and  rub 
over  bedfteads,  S:c.**  16  An.  425.  But,  a  clear 
strong  lime  water,  it  is  faid,  anfwers  perfectly  well ; 
is  neater,  and  is  even  harmlefs  to  died  filks. 

BRINE  OR  PICKLE,  ^ 

The  rule  of  brine  bearing  an  tgg,  may  do  for 
things  to  be  foon  ufed.  But  ought  not  a  trut  full 
pickle,  for  keeping  meat,  fifh,  and  butter,  to  be 
haikd  down  till  the  fait  begins  to  cryltallize  ?  a  flight 

fcum 


INTIMATIONS.  4I5 

fcum  on  the  top  (liews  this,  vvhilil  the  pickle  is  yet 
over  the  iire." 


ICE  .iXD  ICE-CREAMS. 

"  Two  pewter  bafons,  one  large  the  orhtr  fmcll : 
the  fmall  one  to  have  a  clofe  cover  j  in  this  bafon 
the  cream  is  put  and  mixt  with  ftrawberries,  Sec.  to 
eive  flavour  and  colour :  fweeten  it.  Cover  it  clofe 
and  fet  the  fmall  bafon  in  the  large  one.  Fill  this 
with  ice  and  a  handful  oi  falty  to  ftand  4  of  aa 
hour :  then  uncover  and  stir  the  cream  well  toge- 
ther :  cover  it  clofe  again,  to  ftand  4  sn  hour 
longer ;  and  then  it  may  be  turned  into  a  plate. 
Tin  or  copper  vcflels  may  do.'* 

FISH,   CURED   IX   the  SUN. 

"  Soon  as  poilible,  after  caught,  Jplit  down  the 
back,  fpread  them  open  and  flat — gut  and  'u,\ijh  out 
the  blood — dniin  them  hanging  by  the  tpjls,  in  the 
cool  of  the  evening  or  in  a  cool  place — ilrew  fait  on 
the  bottom  of  the  tub — fprinkle  them  well  with 
clean,  Jine  fait — place  them  belly  to  belly  in  the  tub, 
to  lay  there  1 2  hours — then  luafn  off"  the  fait,  in  the 
pickle — again  hang  by  the  tails,  to  drain  4  an  hour 
— lay  them  to  dry,  OTifiones  or  fweet  v»ood,  inclin- 
ing to  xht.fun — never  leave  them  out  when  the  fun 
is  off — nor  lay  them  out  in  the  morning  till  the  dtu 

is 


41 6  NOTES    AND 

is  off  and  the  fun  fimies — a  week  of  fine  weather,  or 
lefs,  cures  them.  When  cured  hang  them  up,  bel- 
ly to  belly,  in  a  verydry  place.'* 

HOUSE-CISTERNS. 

Thev  are  becoming  more  common  in  Europe. 
A  roof  of  a  houfe  gives  a  fufficient  fupply  of  water. 
Rain-water,  when  confined  under  ground,  becomes 
very  pure,  palatable,  and  cool  even  in  fummcr.  The 
cillern  is  in  a  yard  or  infide  or  outfide  of  the  kit- 
chen, in  forae  corner  near  the  door.  The  deeper 
the  better  the  water  will  be  kept.  Where  the 
ground  is  not  fo  bad  as  to  require  a  round  form  to 
a  ciflern,  a  cube  is  a  good  figure :  a  double  cube 
mud  be  better,  as  it  gains  depth  and  coolnefs,  A 
ciflern  of  6  cubic  feet  holds  i6  hhds.  of  ico  gal. 
each ;  or  26  wine  hhds.  But  the  double  cube  of 
5  feet  feems  better,  and  would  hold  above  1 8  rum 
hhds.  of  100  gal.  or  near  30  wine  hhds.;  and 
would  be  10  feet  deep,  and  cool  and  fwcet  in  pro- 
portion. The  pit  fliould  be  dug  exaftly  by  fquare 
and  plum,  for  carrying  up  the  wall  to  advantage. 
On  the  face  of  the  pit  lay  the  clay  plafterwife  with 
a  trowel,  coat  over  coat  (as  it  dries  and  cracks)  two 
or  three  inches  thick  in  all.  Againft  this  firm  even 
face  of  plaftcr  raife  the  brick  or  llone  work.  Bed 
the  bottom  3  or  4  inches  thick  with  firong  clay, 
beat  into  a  fmooth,  even  wax-like  fabftance.     The 

clay 


INTIMATIONS.  41/ 

clay  is  moderately  wetted  and  beaten  with  fwitches, 
withs,  fmall  hoop-poles  :  not  with  any  thing  heavy, 
or  having  a  broad  furface.  On  this  clay  floor  lay 
a  double  bed  of  brick  ;  and  on  the  margin  of  this 
carry  up  the  fide  walls  half  brick  thick,  laying  them 
in  terras.  Cover  the  cillern  over,  clofe  as  may  be. 
Fix  to  it  a  fmall  pump,  of  wood  or  lead,  or  whol- 
fomer  of  iron :  the  pump  to  be  two  feet  from  the 
bottom :  or  a  roller  and  bucket  raifes  the  water. 
Upon  thefe  principles,  but  not  exaftly  like  this 
mode  in  all  particulars,  for  clay  fupplied  the  place 
of  terras,  a  ciftern  was  built  for  me  fix  years  fince, 
in  Philadelphia,  which  has  continued  perfeft  from 
the  beginning.  In  many  places  in  Europe,  rain 
water  faved  in  cifterns  is  the  only  water  drunk. 
And  Stolberg's  Travels  fajr  rain  water  in  cifterns  is 
efteemed  according  to  its  age,  as  being  more  pure. 
He  drank  of  fome  near  Naples  three  years  old ;  and 
it  was  excellent.  How  fuperior  would  ciftern  rain 
water  be  to  the  people  on  the  flat  coafts  of  Ameri- 
ca ;  and  wherever  elfe  the  water  is  not  the  pureft 
from  fprings  and  wells  j  efpecialiy  when  boilcdy 
cooled  and  filtered. 

TV  A  TE  R  I NG-P  0  ND  S. 

Tlie  I  ft  Bath  Letters,  and  6th  and  8lh  Annals, 
fpeak  of  the  practice  in  making  thefe  ponds  in  dry 
fields  and  yards,  for  watering  cattle.     Dry  lime  is 

D  d  fiftcd 


4l8  NOTLS    AND 

lifted  2  or  3  irxches  thick  on  the  bottom  of  the  place 
fcooped  out  for  the  pond,  for  obflrufting  worms  and 
beetles.  On  this  lay  clay,  moist  (fcarcely  wet)  well 
fwitched  and  beaten,  6  or  7  inches  thick.  On  this 
lay  gravel  6  inches  thick.  A  pond  20  yards  dia- 
meter is  firlT;  dug  out  one  foot  deep,  and  then  deep- 
ened, iloping  like  a  bowl,  to  the  centre ;  where  it 
is  4^  or  5  feet  deep. 

HERRINGS,   SALTED— AND   CURED. 

Lord  Dundonald,  in  his  book  on  fait,  gives  the 
Dutc/j  method  oi  faking  herrings — and  then  of  cur~ 
ing  them  ;  a  diftinft  operation  from  falting.  Salt- 
ing :  immediately  as  taken,  gut  the  herrings  by 
the  finger  and  thumb  tearing  away  the  gills  liver 
and  ftomach  ;  the  long  gut,  to  which  a  fat  mem- 
brane adheres,  is  drawn  k>  far  out  as  to  be  left  pen- 
dent. Soon  as  gutted,  fait  the  fifli  and  flow  them 
clofe  in  the  barrel ;  laying  each  layer  in  a  contrary 
dire£tion  to  the  one  below.  The  barrel  is  coopered 
clofe  up,  foon  as  full.  Be  careful  to  have  none  but 
perfectly  tight  barrels.  The  herrings  remain  thus, 
to  pine  in  this  firft  fait  and  in  the  bloody  juices  or 
brine,  14  days  "with,  f mall  fait,  or  3  or  4  weeks 
with  large  fait. — Curing  :  this  prevents  a  tenden- 
cy which  the  bloody  liquor  or  brine  has  to  putrify. 
A  proper  curing  depends  on  a  procefs  whereby  the 
oil  contained  in  the  prepared  liquor  or  brine,  by 

being 


INTIMATIONS. 


419 


being  rendered  mifcihle  with  ivater  and  reduced  to 
a  faponaceous  date,  is  preferved  from  the  aftlon  of 
the  air  and  turning  rancid. — After  the  herrings 
have  been  a  fufficient  time  in  fait  to  pine  or  throw 
their  hquor  (part  with  their  juices),  empty  the  bar- 
rels of  them  upon  a  large  dreffer  having  a  ledge 
round  it,  and  inclining  one  way  for  the  liquor  to 
run  off  int6  a  veiTel.  Boil  the  brine  in  an  iron  vef- 
fel :  /kim  and  draw  it  into  a  wooden  receiver ;  let- 
ting it  cooL  Take  the  melts  of  thirty  male  herrings 
for  every  barrel.  Bruife  or  triturate  them  in  a 
mortar :  add  fome  of  the  liquor,  as  you  triturate ; 
and  when  well  diffolved  to  the  ftate  of  a  rich  emul- 
fion  or  faponaceous  liquor,  mix  it  with  the  boiled 
liquor  in  the  wooden  velTel.  Then  lay  the  herrings 
in  the  barrels,  and  a  layer  of  fait  between  the  rows, 
as  in  the  firfl  faking.  Cooper  the  barrels  clofe^ 
and  fill  them  with  the  prepared  liquor,  at  the  bung 
or  head. 

C  Al^D  LES. 

"  Difiblve  25^  Q)[  heef  talloiv  Tccidi  1^0^  mutton 
tallow^  in  a  copper  orbrafs  veffel,  with  Jrt^  ox  boiling 
ivatcr  to  each  pound  of  tallow.  Mix  therein  i  '- 
quart  of  brandy^  when  the  tallow  is  melted,  and  5 
ounces  fa/t  of  tartar,  5  ouwca fal  ammoniac,  5  ounces 
cream  of  tartar,  and  2  ounces  dry,  clean  poUiJh. 
Boil  all  together  A  hour.  Cool  it.  Next  day  take 
D  d  2  out 


420  NOTES    AND 

out  the  cake,  cut  it  into  flices,  and  expofe  to  the  dew 
and  air,  till  it  becomes  a  fine  white  mafs,  hard  almoft 
as  vrax.  Make  the  \ricks  of  best  cotton  fpun  very 
Jine  and  very  even  and  clean.  Steep  the  wicks  in 
fpirits  of  wine ;  and  harden  them  under  a  coat  of 
wax.     Then  pour  the  tallow  on  them,  in  moulds." 

POKEMELT. 

Green  cucumbers,  middle  fized  or  rather  large 
and  even  tawny,  are  put  into  a  jar  or  caik.  Upon 
each  layer  of  them,  add  a  layer  of  ivhite  ozik 
leaves,  and  black  currant  leaves.  Over  every  layer 
fprinkle  dill  feeds,  mufliard  feed,  horfe-radifli  and 
garlic :  and  to  CYcry  twenty  cucumbers,  one  bell  of 
pepper.  ZMakc  a  brine  of  fait  and  water,  not  quite 
follrcr.r  :  "  'ear  an  egg:  to  every  gallon  whereof 
add  u  c_  ^:od  white  wine  vinegar;  and  fill  the 

jar  or  caik;  with  the  pickle,  cold,  after  it  has  been 
boiled  21.:  ::  .  r.  rd.  A  gentleman  from  RuiEa  gave 
this  account,  to  fome  friends  in  Philadelphia.  He 
faid  the  pickled  cucumbers,  according  to  the  above, 
are  ufed  in  RufHa ;  and  that  it  is  faid  there,  the 
Eir.prefs  had  a  calk  of  them  for  every  day  in  the 
year.  Mr.  Sziintcriy  the  traveller,  gives  another 
way  of  r  ;.t.c1v  ;  v.hich  is  this  : — A  layer 

of  oak  leaves  ;s  tkiii  put  into  the  bottom  of  a  cajk 
which  is  beft  of  white  oak :  then  a  laver  of  cucum- 
bers :  and  fo  altemately  till  the  cafk  is  filled.     A 

pickle 


INTIMATIONS.  421 

pickle  is  made,  as  is  common,  with  fait  and  water ; 
not  too  ftrong  :  and  it  is  poured  over  the  cucumbers 
in  the  cafk.  The  cafk  is  kept  in  a  cool  cellar.  The 
cucumber  is  foon  fit  for  ufe,  and  keeps  good  a  year 
or  more.  He  imagines  if  fome  vinegar  was  added  it 
would  be  wholefomer,  efpecially  to  Ruffians  whofe 
great  ufe  of  fait  meffiss  renders  them  very  fcorbutic." 
The  gentleman  who  gave  the  firfl:  above  receipt  faid, 
the  pickle  was  to  be  acidulated  fo  that  the  tafte  of 
vinegar  fliould  be  very  flight.  He  dire^led  alfo  that 
the  cafk  be  of  white  oak,  and  the  cucumbers  be  ra- 
ther full  grown,  and  put  in  whole.  I  have  eat  of 
them  as  made  in  the  firfl  above  method,  aifo  fome 
fplit  into  four  lengths.  It  is  a  much  admired  pickle, 
mild  and  winning,  I  faw  a  lady  nearly  make  her 
dinner  of  them  :  for  they  are  ferved  up  in  plates-full ; 
and  are  in  a  ftile  different  from,  and  milder  than 
other  pickles. 

RENNET. 

Mr.  Marjhal,  in  his  Rural  Economy  of  Norfolk, 
gives  the  following  as  the  befl  way  of  faving  rei^pet 
fkins. — Throwing  away  the  curd,  the  ftomach  of  the 
calf  is  waihed  clean  and  falted  thoroughly  infide  and 
out,  Cwith  fine  pounded  fait,  it  is  prefumed ;  for  he 
adds)  leaving  a  white  coat  of  fait  overy  every  part  of 
it.  It  is  then  placed  in  an  earthen  (better  if  flone) 
jar,  for  3  or  4  days.     It  is  then  hung  up,  2  or  3 

days, 


422  NOTES    AND 

days,  refalted  and  placed  again  in  the  jar,  covered 
tight  down  with  a  paper  pierced  with'pin  holes  ; 
where  it  remains  till  wanted,  for  ufe.  It  ought  to 
remain  fo  1 2  months,  to  be  ilrong  :  but  may  be  ufed 
a  few  days  after  the  fecond  faking. 

RENNET  LIQUOR. 

A  handful  of  the  leaves  of  fweet  briar,  another  of 
the  dog  rofe,  and  another  of  the  bramble,  are  boiled 
together  in  a  gallon  of  water  with  three  or  four 
handfuls  of  fait,  for  a  quarter  of  an  hour.  Strain  oif 
the  liquor.  When  quite  cool  put  it  into  an  earthen 
or  flone  veffel  and  add  the  prepared  maw  or  ftomach 
iliin.  Then  add  a  found  lemon,  ftuck  round  with  i. 
ounce  of  cloves.  The  longer  it  is  in  the  liquor  the 
ftronger  is  the  rennet.  When  (Irong  enough,  take 
out  the  fkin.  Hang  it  up  two  or  three  days  to  drain. 
Refalt  it :  put  it  again  in  the  jar  ;  and  thus  continue 
to  treat  it,  till  its  virtues  are  exhaufted,  which  will 
not  be  till  ufcd  feveral  times.     MarJhaL 

'  CURD. 

The  warmer  the  milk,  the  fooner  it  coagulates : 
but  if  too  warm,  the  curd  is  tough  and  harlli.  The 
cooler  the  milk  and  longer  in  coagulating,  the  more 
tender  and  delicate  the  curd. — The  length  of  time 
between  the  fitting  the  milk  and  the  conmg  of  the 

cnrd 


INTIMATIONS.  423 

curd  may  be  regulated  by  the  warmth  of  the  7nilk 
when  fet  ;  or  by  the  warmth  in  which  it  is  kept  vvhilfl 
it  is  coagulating  ;  or  by  the  strength  and  quantity  of 
the  rennet. — ^Perhaps  it  is  not  the  heat  when  yt"/,  but 
the  heat  when  it  comes,  which  gives  the  quality  of 
the  curd. — The  curd  fliould  be  covered  to  make  it 
come  together :  it  may  otherwife  be  hard  at  the  bot- 
tom half  an  hour  before  it  comes  at  the  top. — Milk 
immediately  from  the  cow  is  95°  of  heat — From  a 
number  of  experiments  Mr.  Marflial  concludes  that 
curd  of  a  good  quality  is  obtained  from  7nilk  heated 
from  87  to  103°  of  Farenheit ;  provided  that  the  ren- 
net be  fo  proportioned  that  the  time  of  coagulation 
be  from  -i  to  2  i  hours ;  and  provided  that  the  milk 
be  properly  covered,  during  the  procefs  of  coagula- 
tion— But  from  thefe  and  numbers  of  other  obferva- 
tions  it  rather  feems  to  him,  at  prefent,  that  from  85 
to  90  are  the  proper  degrees  of  heat :  that  from  one 
to  two  hours  is  the  proper  time  oi  coagulation,  and  for 
keeping  the  milk  covered ;  fo  as  to  lofe  in  the  procefs 
about  5"  of  its  original  heat.     MarfJoaU 

BEER. 

It  is  fiiid  Sir  Jolm  Dalrymple  propofes  that  beer  be 
brewed  with  ivort-cake  and  hop-cake,  combined  with 
yeast-powder  :  which  may  be  with  cold  water.  One 
pound  of  the  cake  is  to  make  a  gallon  of  table  beer  : 
and  it  is  thought  it  would  anfwer  well  at  fea,  and  fave 

Ilowage 


424  NOTES    AND 

flowage. — I  have  cured  yeaft  in  cakes,  by  fmearing 
tubs  with  it,  and  cxpofmg  it  to  evaporation  in  the 
fliade  and  wind  till  perfectly  dry.  My  dried  cakes 
of  yeaft  were  broke  fmall,  and  kept  in  bottles,  quite 
di-y  and  well  corked. 

EGGS. 

Into  a  tub  put  abufliel  quicklime,  2ft»  fait,  and  4^ 
of  cream  of  tartar,  mixt  in  water  to  bear  an  cg^  with 
its  top  jufi:  above  water.  Keep  eggs  in  this  ;  which 
may  be  two  years,  fays  Repert.  177. 

LEVEL. 

Thz /pan-level  is  always  ufed  by  irrigators  of  mea- 
dows in  Pennfylvania.  The  bifliop  of  Landiff  (Doc- 
tor Shipley;  it  is  faid  was  fo  pleafed  with  it  that  he 
prevailed  with  Mr.  E.  a  Pennfylvania  farmer  to  direct 
the  making  them  for  him.  The  Repertory  of  arts 
has  given  proper  direflions  for  ufing  it  thus : — At 
the  level  of  the  water,  where  you  begin,  drive  a  pia 
into  the  ground  ;  on  which  one  leg  of  the  level  can 
reft ;  then  bring  the  other  leg  round,  till  it  touches 
the  ground  on  a  level  with  the  top  of  that  pin  :  there 
drive  in  another  pin  ;  and  having  adjufted  the  level 
perfefiiy,  make  ufe  of  this  lail  pin  as  a  refl:  for  one 
foot,  turn  the  other  about  till  you  find  the  level  in 
the  fame  way ;  and  fo  proceed  on.     Thus  at  once 

vou 


INTIMATIONS.  425 

you  difcover  the  precife  dire^lions  that  the  water 
courfe  fliould  hold,  without  digging  through  heights 
or  fiiUng  up  hollows.  This  is  to  conduft  \v2Xtr per- 
feSfly  level. — If  declivity  is  to  be  given  4  4  '^ch  or 
more  in  every  12  feet  (the  fpan  of  the  level),  inftead 
of  wooden  pins,  make  ufe  of  one  pin  of  steel,  having 
inches,  halves,  and  quarters,  marked  on  the  fides, 
from  the  fquare  top  downwards ;  and  have  a  number 
of  wooden  pins,  cut  neatly  at  the  top  quite  fquare. 
After  fixing  the  iron  pin  quite  level  with  the  firfl:, 
drive  a  wooden  pin  into  the  ground  clofe  by  it,  mak- 
ing its  head  go  i-  or  \  inch  lower  than  the  top  of  the 
iron  pin.  Then  pulling  out  the  iron  pin,  and  em- 
ploying the  wooden  one  as  a  rcfl:  for  one  of  the  legs, 
put  the  iron  pin  in  again  for  the  other  leg,  and  driv- 
ing another  wooden  pin  into  the  ground,  a  quarter 
inch  lower,  proceed  forward  in  this  manner,  and  the 
canal  will  have  the  fame  uniform  degree  of  Hope, 
throughout  its  whole  extent.  Thus  the  fall  can  be 
regulated  to  any  affignable  degree.  One  of  thefe 
levels  1  ufed  at  Como,  in  Chefter  county,  with  great 
fatisfaflion,  for  directing  water  in  irrigating  the 
land.     See  plate. 

WILLOWS. 

There  are  low,  broken,  fwampy  lands  little  fuita- 

ble  for  meadow,  which  may  be  profitably  planted 

with  willows.     A  Mr.  Lowe,  in  England,  improved 

V  fuch. 


426  KOTES    AND 

fucli  ground ;  by  laying  it  out  from  3  to  4  yards 
wide,  with  a  ditch  on  each  fide,  3  feet  at  top,  i  foot 
at  bottom,  2 1  feet  deep  ;  but  the  ditch  is  to  be  deep 
and  wide,  according  to  the  condition  of  the  ground, 
for  giving  near  a  yard  of  earth  above  the  level  of  the 
water  ;  towards  which  purpofe,  the  earth  dug  out 
of  the  ditches,  is  thrown  on  the  land.  Then  dig  the 
ground  two  fpades  depth,  unlefs  it  be  very  boggv. 
The  plants  are  to  be  kept  perfectly  clean,  efpecially 
the  firft  year.  The  fets  or  truncheons  are  cut  20  to 
24  inches  ;  avoiding  to  bruife  the  bark  in  cutting  or 
planting  :  they  are  therefore  cut  in  the  hand,  not  on 
a  block.  The  ground  is  opened  with  a  crow  bar, 
14  to  20  inches  deep  ;  and  4  to  6  inches  of  the  plants 
are  left  above  ground.  The  cuttings  were  from 
poles  of  three  years  growth  ;  and  placed  3  feet  apart, 
quincunx. — One,  two,  or  three  fhoots  were  left  to 
grow.  At  8  years  old  he  fold  off  near  500  dollars 
worth  on  an  acre.  "Where  the  plants  are  puny  and 
weak,  dig  in  manure  to  their  roots.  The  poles  fo 
fold,  at  8  years  old,  were  33  to  36  feet  high,  enough 
for  three  rails,  2  at  bottom  and  one  at  top.  But 
their  great  ufe  was  in  making  hurdles,  gates  and  im- 
plements of  hufbandry.  The  time  for  planting  is 
from  January  to  the  end  of  March  j  and  the  fets  are 
to  be  cut  from  December  to  the  end  of  February, 
whilst  tk»fap  is  dczun.  Rep. — It  is  with  caution  that 
the  yelkzu  'luHIow  fliould  be  planted  near  fprings  and 
wells  of  water.  I  have  heard  of  thefe  being  damag- 
ed 


INTIMATIONS. 


427 


ed  greatly  by  the  willow  roots,  and  of  afpring  being 
flopt  entirely.  On  a  farm  which  I  lately  bought  in 
Chefler  county,  water  was  carried  under  ground 
near  300  yards  from  a  fpring  which  had  been  choak- 
ed,  as  the  tenant  thought  mifchevioufly,  by  twigs  of 
the  yellow  willow  being  cut  and  put  into  the  tube 
at  the  fpring.  They  drifted  and  lodged  at  different 
parts  of  the  tube,  and  there  threw  out  malTcs  of  roots, 
very  fmall,  fponge-like,  and  clofe,  fo  that  the  water 
was,  in  a  while,  totally  ftopt  from  paffmg  through. 
The  whole  of  the  tubes  I  have  caufed  to  be  taken  up 
and  replaced  ;  and  a  flone  houfe  built,  and  locked 
up,  over  the  fpring.  See,  of  Swamps,  the  next  ar- 
ticle. 

SWAMPS. 

I  have  read  of  a  fwamp,  of  which  meadow  could 
not  be  made  ;  and,  being  a  difagreeable  objeft,  large 
deep  ditches  were  dug,  and  the  earth  thrown  up  into 
little  iflands  ;  which  were  planted  wjth  willows,  and 
formed  beautiful  clumps  of  trees,  here  and  there ;  fo 
that  nothing  was  feen  but  thefe  trees,  and  various 
peeps  of  water.  The  ditches  anfwered  for  fifh- 
ponds.     See  of  willows ;  the  preceding  article.        m 

Lombardy  poplar  is  planted  about  habitations  in 
America  for  ornament :  but  an  Italian  gentleman  fays, 
in  Italy  it  is  fawed  at  mills  whilfl  green  into  boards 

'    ;  to 


428  NOTES    AND 

i  4-  to  one  inch  thick,  and  into  plank  2  to  3  inches 
thick  ;  and  is  greatly  applied  to  making  packages  for 
merchandize.  Nails  are  not  apt  to  draw  in  thefe 
packages,  the  boards  whereof  are  thii>;  and  the 
wood  being  tender  is  eafily  cut  into  thin  boards  with 
handfaws.  In  20  years  their  trunks,  he  adds,  grow 
to  be  2  feet  diameter  and  30  long.  Boxes  of  it  made 
ftrong  for  the  ufe  of  vineyards  lad  there  30  or  40 
years  ;  which  induces  the  expeftation  that  they  may 
lafl  long  in  fence-rails  ,or  logs.  As  fuel  he  fays  it 
makes  a  much  ftronger  fire  than  the  willow.  The 
weeping  willow  is  a  fmgular  and  valuable  ornament. 
Of  other  willows  and  ofiers,  the  beft  adapted  to  mak- 
ing bafkets,  hurdles,  tool  handles,  &c.  no  hufband- 
man  ought  to  be  without  a  permanent  flock  in  full 
growth.  For  the  more  general,  extenfive  and  im- 
portant purpofes,  the  Larch  f  Pinus  Larix,  Lin. J 
mufl  have  the  firft  attention  of  landed  men.  See 
DotStor  Anderfon^s  3d  volume  of  EfTays  on  Hufban- 
dry,  for  a  full  and  fatisfaftory  account  of  it,  and  of 
the  extenfive  propagation  of  it  in  Scotland  ;  with  its 
ofeful  and  durable  qualities ;  and  its  very  quick 
growth,  fo  much  wanted  in  the  oal<. 

^  Mr.  Young  fpeaks  of  fifh-ponds ;  and  of  four 
ponds,  an  acre  each,  one  above  another,  on  aflream, 
which  turned  a  mill  below  the  ponds.     19  An.  400. 

BmriL^ 


INTIMATIONS.  429 

DISTILLATION. 

The  Dutch  method  of  preparing  wafh,  for  malt 
fpirit,  faves  much  trouble  and  procures  a  large  quan- 
tity of  fpirit.  It  is  the  mod  profitable  method,  and 
reduces  the  two  operations  o^brezving  andfcnnenting 
into  one.  It  is  this  : — In  proportion  to  ioit)of  malt 
v!\jine  meal,  and  3  ft)  of  common  wheat  meal,  they 
add  2  gallons  of  cdd  water,  flirring  all  well  toge- 
ther :  then  add  5  gallons  of  water  boiling  hot ;  and 
again  ftir  all  together.  When  this  is  cold  they  add  2 
ounces  o^folid  yeafl ;  and  ferment  it  in  a  warm  place, 
loofely  covered. — In  England,  by  drawing  and  mafh- 
ing  for  fpirit,  as  they  do  for  beer,  pumping  into 
coolers,  and  running  it  into  fermenting  backs,  and 
fermenting  it,  they  have  twice  the  labour,  and  lofe 
much  fpirit,  by  leaving  the  grofs  bottoms  out  of  the 
Itill,  for  fear  of  burning.  Sibley's  Hift.  IMifcel. 
pa.  352. 

TOWER—DRAVGUr. 

The  16  An.  562,  fays,  can  ivitb  one  horfe  are  pre- 
ferred ;  and  that  they  carry  1 60  large  bricks,  of 
i4tb,  equal  to  22401*)-  Thefe  cars  are  about  5  feet 
fquare,  and  i  foot  deep ;  containing  25  feet :  27  f. 
a  cubic  yard  is  a  load  of  earth.  The  ivbeels  tzi-o 
feet  diameter,  run  under  the  car,  as  in  Ireland.* 

The 

*  I  direifled  a  cart  to  be  made  on  the  principles  of  Sharp's 
waggons  on  rollers.     The  wheels  of  this  cart,  or  rpther  th- 


43^  xorrs   and 

The  1 8  An.  1 79,  fays,  one-horfc  carts  prove  macb 
preferable  for  all  works  of  hufb.mdry  :  and  the  form 
of  fcch  a  cart,  '■Mitb  an  ox  in  thills  and  gears,  and 
bridled,  is  given.  This  cart  is  5  feet  long  :  t^~^ 
broad  :  2  deep  ;  equal  to  t^6  cubic  feet. 

The  firength  of  a  common  man,  walking  bonzov- 
tally,  with  his  body  inclining  forwards,  is  faid  to  be 
equal  to  27]^.  If  he  walks  backwards  the  force  is 
faid  to  be  greater  in  pulling  backward  ;  and  it  is  fiid 
to  be  known  that  a  horfe  draws  horhcntally  as  much 
as  feven  men  ;  that  confequently  his  firength  is  equal 
to  I  Splb,  when  drawing  hori'z.ontaUy.  Yet  in  afand- 
ing,  three  men  laden  with  ico^,  each,  will  go  up  a 
pretty  fteep  hill  with  more  eafe  and  expedition,  than 
a  horfe  laden  with  3001c. 

I  have  often  fcea  about  a  tun  weight  drawn,  and 
fometimes  up  a  trying  hill  as  from  Market  ftreet 
wharf,  Philadelphia,  to  Front  ftreet,  by  07ie  bcrfe  in 
a  dray  having  wheels  of  three  feet  diameter.  On 
level  ground,  with  fuch  lov7  wheels,  his  whole  power 
is  exerted  to  advantage  j  up'xard,  from  the  centre  of 

the 

rolhrsy  "vrere  fvro  feet  dJain?ter,  and  1 6  inches  tread,  fa'S'ed 
out  of  oak.  They  performed  admirably,  escept  when  run- 
ning oTer  old  cornhills  :  they  tien  iumped  condnually.  With. 
4cxen  it  carried  120  bulhels  cf  wheat,  7000!*).  eafily.  The 
rollers  were  under  the  body ;  and  this  was  nsariy  fquare  with 
equal  fides.     Carts  are  uied  with  cw  cv,  inflead  of  a  horfe. 


INTIMATIONS.  33I 

the  axis  which  is  below  his  point  of  draught.  Hori- 
zontal draught,  has  but  189^^  of  power  to  be  added 
to  fome  portion  of  the  horfe's  weight.  But  in  draw- 
ing upward  it  is  with  an  increafed  power.  Contrary 
to  common  reafoning,  a  horfe  draws  more  in  a  dray 
having  three  feet  wheels  than  in  a  cart  having  five 
feet  wheels,  or  elfe  I  muft  ftrangely  be  millaken  in 
my  judgment  of  what  I  have  feen  and  concluded  were 
facts.  The  line  of  draught,  yrow  the  axis  of  a  three 
feet  wheel,  is  elevated ;  which  gives  the  horfe  a  lift- 
ing purchafe,  with  the  aid  of  his  legs,  and  better  foot- 
hold prelllng  more  direflly  on  the  ground  :  but  when 
the  wheel  is  five  feet  high,  the  draft  is  in  a  line 
nearly  horizontal,  and  the  horfe  pulls  to  difadvan- 
tage  ivith  a  horizontal  exertion  of  the  footlock  ;  which 
is  very  inferior  to  the  pov»'er  exerted  by  \h^fooi  and 
leg,  when  drawing  upward  they  prefs  more  diredly 
on  the  ground. 

SHEEP. 

The  univerfal  food  for  flieep  in  England  is,  in 
fumnier,  common  grafs  and  clover  ;  in  zcintcr,  tur- 
nips for  winter  feed,  and  from  tuiTiips  to  vetches  in 
the  fpring  :  hay,  only  when  turnips  fail.  Of  stock 
flieep,  100  require  5  acres  of  turnips,  and  15  acre^ 
of  clover.  Good  inclofed  padure  will  carry  fix  fliecp 
to  an  acre.  1 9  An.  295.  298. — A  tun  of  hay  a  day 
was  eaten  by  700  (heep  ;  which  gave  to  each  3  j.\rfc 


432 


>50T£S    AND 


a  diiy,  and  was  rather  fcanty.  "  Cabbages  are  bet- 
ter for  flieep  than  turnips  two  to  one" — After  the 
flieep  are  a  little  accuflomed  to  their  flails,  they 
thrive  well.  They  are  there  fed  3  or  4  times  a  day, 
and  have  clean  htter.  18  An.  105.  111. — In 
America,  plant  a  cabbage  in  the  flep  betw'een  every 
two  hills  of  maize,  the  partial  (hade  may  be  favora- 
ble to  them.  It  is  faid  that  colliflowers  fucceed  bet- 
ter when  planted  amongft  maize,  than  when  in  a 
garden,  gooseberries  alfo  require  fome  (hade.  Thus 
they  are  ralfed  without  labour  ;  for  the  maize  mufl 
be  horfe-hoed.  What  would  be  the  di5erence  be- 
tween letting  the  plants  grow  into  cabbages  from  the 
feeds,  without  removal,  and  tranfplanting  as  ufual  ? 

FRESHENmG  SALT  PROVISIONS. 

In  my  paffages  on  the  Chefapeak,  I  obferved  my 
fkipper  would  foraetimes  flice  falted  barrel  pork,  and 
in  a  few  minutes  fre(hen  the  llices  in  a  frying  pan  ; 
and  then  boil  them  for  his  dinner.  The  pork  llices 
were  put  in  ffe(h,  cold  water,  in  a  frying  pan,  and 
held  over^fire  till  the  water  begafi  tofimmcr  (never 
fuffering  it  to  boil  in  the  leaft).  This  water  was  then 
thrown  away,  and  other  cold  freOi  w  ater  was  put  in 
a  pot  together  with  the  flices  of  pork.  They  were 
then  boiled  till  enough. — This  was  applied,  in  my 
family,  to  frediening  fait  fidi ;  efpecially  cod  founds  j 
and  it  anfwered  admirably.     Sometimes  they  were  fo 

over 


INTIMATIO^rs.  433 

over  frefhened,  that  it  was  neceffary  to  eat  fiilt  with 
them. 


TURNIPS, 

In  Kent's  Hints,  page  128,  is  the  following  on  tur-* 
nips. — In  crops  they  anfwer  three  great  purpofes  j  to 
clean  the  ground :  fupport  live  stock,  a  vafl:  deal :  and 
prepare  for  other  crfjps  ;  particularly  for  barley  and 
clover,  or  grafs-feeds.     The  turnip  crop  is  the  Nor- 
folkman*s  flieet  anchor;  and  he  fpares  it  no  pains* 
The  flubble  of  wheat,  barley,  or  oats,  is  preferred  for 
bringing  on  turnips.     They  plow  very  iliallow  ;  fo 
as  to  ikim  off  the  rough  furface  only,  fome  time  be- 
fore Chriflmas.     In  the  following  March,  it  is  well 
harrowed  (their  foil  is  a  fandy  loam)  and  then  is  crofs 
plowed  to  ksfull  depth.     In  May,  it  is  plowed  again, 
the  fame  depth  :  and  if  dry  wearher  and  the  foil  ftifF, 
immediately   harroiv  after  this   plowing.     By   the 
first  of  June,  it  ought  to  be  perfectly  clean.     Now, 
I  o  good  cart  loads  of  manure  are  laid  on  an  acre,  re- 
gularly fpread,  and  plowed  in  quite  frejh,  half  the 
depth  of  the  other  plowing. — It  thus  is  left  till  about 
the  2 1st  of  June  ;  and  then  is  well  harro--:ed,  to  blend 
the  foil  and  manure  together. — It  is  then  ploivcd  to 
Its  full  depth,  and  harrowed,  once  only,  the  way  it  is 
plowed. — The  feed  is  then  immediately  fown,  on  the 
E  e  frejh 


434  NOTES    AND 

frefn  earth  ;*  not  even  ivaitingfor  theplow'mg  afecond 
ridge.  A  quart  of  feed  an  acre  is  fown.  The  feed 
is  harrcr^ued  in  twice,  the  fame  way  the  ground  was 
plowed.  The  barrcrj;  is  fhort  tined,  and  the  lighter 
the  better. 

The  niceft  part  of  the  turnip  hufbandry  now  re- 
mains to  be  obferved  :  It  is  hoing  ;  without  which 
all  the  former  labour  is  thrown  away. — When  the 
plants  cover  three  inches  in  diameter,  hoe  them  with 
a  lo  inch  hoe;  and  fet  them  at  15  inches  apart; 
without  regard  to  the  apparent  health  in  the  choice 
of  thofe  left.     About  i  o  or  at  moft  1 4  days  after  the 
firfl:  hoing,  the  ground  is  hoed  a  fecond  time,  fo  as 
to  stir  the  mould  effectually  between  the  plants,  and 
to  check  weeds.     About  14  to  20  days  after  the 
20th  September,  the  turnips  are  fit  for  confuraption, 
and  fo   to  April,  unlefs  the  froft  injures   them. — 
%  Where  the  land  is  ivet  the  whole  are  drawn,  and  fed 
in  cribs.      On  light  dry  land,  every  other  ridge  is 
drawn. 

He  adds,  20  acres  of  a  good  crop  of  turnips  fat- 
fen  15  or  16  bullocks,  2.nd  fupport  10  followers  or 
ftors  cattle  for  25  weeks ;  or  of  (heep,  as  8  to  one 

bullock. 

*  In  Maryland,  turnip  feed  is  ufually  fown  a  full  irxnth 
later  than  this. 


/\ 


INTIMATIONS.  435 

bullock.     But  the  greatefl  advantage  is  in  cleaning, 
meliorating  and  preparing  the  foil  for  other  crops. 

Tofave  turnips  in  the  field,  they  fink  fome  beds 
in  the  ground  where  they  grew,  about  two  feet  deep, 
of  a  coniiderable  width,  and  lay  5  or  6  layers  of  tur- 
nips in  them,  one  upon  another,  with  a  little  yrr/zj 
eart/j  between  every  two  layers,  and  cover  the  top 
over  with  ilraw,  to  keep  out  the  froit.  Or  pile 
thera  up  in  fmall  ftacks,  with  the  greens  outward, 
and  a  little  clean  ftraw  between  every  two  layers  ; 
^nd  laftly  cover  or  fkreen  them  with  wattles  lined 

with  Itraw.* 

E  e  2  MANURING 

*  At  Wye,  w'uh  intention  to  tiy  a  new  modf,  my  turnips 
■were  Ibvvn  in  broad-c;il^,  thick.  A  plow  having  a  narro\v  fin 
without  its  mould  bo.ird,  was  run  throiigh  the  young  plants, 
carefully,  for  leaving  them  on  narrow  ilips  ot"  earth.  Hand- 
lioes  followed,  working  actofs  the  rows,  and  cutting  near  a 
foot  width  of  the  plants  quite  up  ;  the  hoers  ftooping  occafi- 
onally  to  thin  the  clufters  of  turnips  left  by  the  hoes.  A  dou^ 
ble  mould  beard  plow  after^s-ards  run  through  the  intervals, 
heaves  up  the  earth  on  each  fide  and  leaves  the  plants  on  clean 
ridges.  Advantageous  r.s  this  proved,  I  could  not  procure 
it  to  be  repeated  more  than  once  more,  a  few  years  after- 
wards. Overieers  are  fis  fixt  to  old  habits  as  tlie  negroes 
under  them;  and  I  was  much  abroad  on  other  bufinefs. 
I  have  indeed  always  found  the  negroes  better  dilpofed  to 
execute  my  defigns,  than  the  overfeers,  who  invariably  are 
attentive  and  ingenious  in  taking  fiiort  cuts  for  fiurring  over 
all  work,  to  foon  get  rid  of  it  and  go  a  frolicking.  I  ufually 
fowed  near  the  end  of  July  though  I  felt  diipofed  to  break 
through  the  pra»5tice  ;  and  fow  a  /iuU  later^  for  faving  them 
before  they  v.cre  old  in  grcwth  when  tliey  incline  to  be  op:a 


436  NOTES    AND 

MAlsURIhG  ORCHARDS. 

When  a  boy,  I  obferved  that  hogs  were  much 
in  orchards  ;  ftalks  and  trafh  of  tobacco  were  placed 
round  the  foot  of  the  trees,  on  the  ground,  in  fmall 
heaps,  during  winter  ;  and  then  apple  trees  in  or- 
chards bore  better,  and  appeared  much  larger  and 
more  perfect  than  at  this  time.  Hogs  feed  on  po- 
tatoes. If  orchards  were  planted  irregularly  with  po- 
tatoes or  Jerufalem  artichokes,  *  and  hogs  turned  on 

them 

and  fpongy,  and  therefore  do  not  keep  fo  well  as  younger  tur- 
nips, clofe  and  in  fail  vigor.  In  that  country  turnips  are  but 
little  hoed  and  that  flovenly  :  and  to  thin  the  plants  the  coun- 
try people  think  ■would  be  dellroying  what  they  had  done. 
Tliey  count  the  rurnips  by  the  number  of  plants,  rather  than  by 
the  quantity  of  the  roots. 

Turnips  in  rows,  having  12  or  14  inch  intervals.  Every 
ether  rcw  taken  up  and  faved,  would  leave  intervals  24  to  zS 
inches  wide.  Cover  the  remaining  turnips  with  long  dung  : 
then  in  November,  before  the  froft  fets  in,  dip  deep  a  double 
mould  board  plow,  and  heave  the  eartli  on  the  turnips,  to 
ftand  the  winter.  Make  the  experiment.  Such  a  plow  is 
highly  valuable  on  many  occafions.  It  efpecially  faves  2  or 
3  bouts  in  clearing  out,  when  plowing  maize.  Of  potatoes 
every  otlier  row  taken  up  would  leave  three  feet  intervals  be- 
tween the  rows  of  remaining  potatoes.  The  haulm  cut  off 
and  laid  on  thefe  potatoes,  may  then  be  covered  by  the  eartli 
heaped  on  them  by  a  ftout  double  mould  board  plow ;  for 
keeping  this  half  of  the  crop  through  the  winter.  It  may  be 
firit  tried,  in  a  few  rows. 

*  But  I  fufpe^;  artichokes  are  more  Impoverlftiing  than 
potatoes. 


INTIMATIONS.  437 

them  when  ripe,  two  valuable  purpofes  might  be  an- 
fwered  :  their  du7ig  fecured,  and  the  ground  stirred  ^ 
the  turning  over  whereof  buries  and  fecures  the 
dung  to  the  foil. 

PORK  KEPT  FRESH  A  TEAR. 

A  Mr.  Poultney,  of  Philadelphia,  dined  on  board 
a  Spanifh  (hip  of  war,  at  the  Havanna,  and  ate  of 
boiled  frefli  pork  which  appeared  as  if  jufl:  killed. 
He  was  told  it  was  killed  and  put  up  near  a  year  be- 
fore, at  La  Vera  Cruz.  The  bones  were  taken  out, 
and  without  any  fait,  the  pieces  were  covered  with 
Spanifh  brown  (a  red  ochre).  It  was  then  packed  in 
bags,  for  the  ofEcers.  They  fliewed  him  fome  in 
bags,  where  they  were  fmothered  in  red  ochre : 
which  is  waflied  off  with  warm  water,  previous  to 
boiling  it.  I  prefum.e  any  other  pure,  impalpable, 
efpecially  dry  aftringent  clay  would  anfwer  as  well. 
Some  clays  fo  far  partake  of  alum,  as  to  (hew  it  ex- 
uded, like  a  white  mould.  Such  I  have  feen  and 
tailed  on  the  banks  of  the  Chefapeak.  But  does 
Spanifli  brown  contain  alum  ? 

BARRELED  BEEF. 

Being  at  an  inconvenient  diftance  from  market, 

and  fcldom  able  to  fell  my  beeves,  on  the  foot,  but 

at  a  very  low  price,  I  found  it  advifable  to  depend 

»  rather 


43S  NOTES    AND 

rather  on  barreling  up  from  tha  grafs,  than  on  felling 
on  the  foot.  From  ignorance  of  a  proper  mode  of 
performing  the  byfmefs,  part  of  my  beef  in  the  firft 
attempt  fpoiled.  On  four  years  experience,  I  prefer 
the  following  ;  which  procured  a  good  charafter  to 
my  beef,  at  market.  I  killed  between  24  and  30 
beeves  which  were  raifed  on  the  farm,  fat  from  the 
grafs  in  the  lad  week  of  Oftober. 

The  beeves  may  be  kept  up  from  food  and  drink, 
two  days :  the  better  if  clofe  and  dark,  and  then 
llaughtered  ;  after  fo  fading  they  are  found  to  bleed 
better,  are  handled  lighter  and  cleaner,  and  every 
way  look  better.  1  had  experienced  this  ;  though  it 
was  not  my  common  practice.  I  found  that  in  com- 
mon upon  the firfl  falting  and  the  meat  lyingin  open 
barrels/owr  days,  there  has  been  drawn  out  by  the 
fait,  ^gallons  of  bloody  juices  from  432^t->  of  beef. 
This  is  of  the  nature  of  pining  of  herrings,  by  the 
Dutch.  Compare  that  in  pa.  418,  with  this  method 
oi falting  and  curing- 

Tbe  barrels  are  to  be  ready,  fweet,  and  weU  trim- 
med ;  and  the  fait  previoufly  waflied  or  refined,  and 
ground  fmall,  before  the  beeves  are  to  be  flaughter- 
ed. — I  killed  14  beeves  as  to-day,  and  falted  them  to- 
morrow morning.  Z>£'/^j' in  falting  is  injurious :  (o 
is  expofure  to  the  air,  even  after  it  is  falted.  The 
pieces  are  therefore  packed  into  the  tight  barrels 

piccp 


INTIMATIONS. 


439 


piece  by  piece  as  they  are  faked  ;  inflead  of  bulking 
them  6n  a  frame  or  drefler  to  drain,  as  had  been  the 
practice :  and  inftcad  of  remaining  two  weeks  to 
drain,  expofed  to  the  air,  they  are  now  6  or  8  days 
left  to  drain,  in  clofe  barrels  headed  up  tight. 

Having  thus  fecured  the  fn-fc  day's  beef,  in  barrels, 
to  drain  (or  pine)  ;  on  the  third  day,  other  14  beeves 
were  killed,  and  managed  in  the  fame  manner.  Six 
pofls  framed  into  plates  of  timber  on  the  top,  v/cre 
erefted  high  enough  for  the  beeves  to  hang  clear  of 
the  ground.  The  entire  carcafes  were  Hid  back  on 
the  plates,  one  after  another  as  they  were  drefled. 
The  two  front  pods  had  holes  through,  at  the  fides 
and  front ;  by  which  with  handfpikes,  or  levers  and 
iron  pin^,  the  beeves  were  raifed  and  dreiTed,  a  pin- 
Iiole  or  two  at  a  time,  without  rope  or  pully. 

Coarfe  fait,  ivajhed  but  not  ground,  having  alfo 
been  previoully  read}'f  is  dilTolved  in  fair  cold  water 
til!  no  more  can  be  diflblvcd  on  (lirring.  Let  it  fet- 
tle a  day  or  two  :  /kim  olF  the  top  :  pour  off  all  but 
the  dregs  ;  and  keep  it  for  ufe  as  below. 

The  meat  is  to  be  taken  out  of  the  barrels  ;  re- 
fiilted^  and  clofcly  repacked  in  the  fame  barrels.     Im- 
mediately head  them  up  perfectly  clofe ;   to  remain 
{o,  till  fold  or  ufed.     In  a  few  days  after  heading 
up  the  barrels,  bore  a  hole  in  one  cf  the  heads, 

or 


440  NOTES    AND 

or  the  bulge,  of  each  barrel,  and  fill  it  up  firft  with 
the  prepared  and  boiled  juices  of  the  meat,  faved  from 
the  firll  falting  and  barreling,  as  under  mentioned. 
Every  time  of  filling,  the  barrels  being  rolled  leaves 
room  for  more  liquor.  When  there  is  no  more  of 
xhe  prepared  juices ,  the  barrels  are  next  to  be  repeat- 
edly filled  with  the  plain  flrong  brine,  made  as  above, 
from  the  walhed  coarle  fait,  till  they  can  take  no 
more  after  ftanding  a  while,* 

I 

*  It  may  be  fomedmes  requiute  to  kill  cattle  in  the  hotteft 
■weather.  A  farmer's  ox  or  cow  may  chance  to  break  or  flip 
a  limb — "  Eeef  dXmid-Jummer  has  been  well  preferred  a;  fol- 
"  lows. — The  OS  killed  one  day,  and  cut  up  and  faked  the  next 
"  day.  The  i'alt,  beat  very  fine,  was  well  rubbed  into  the 
'"  meat,  which  was  then  prefled  into  a  cafk  with  fpijnkling  of 
**  fait  between  the  lays.  It  thus  flood  48  hours,  when  from 
•*  the  clofe  packing  the  bloody  juices  appeared  above  the  meat, 
*'  and  they  were  poured  off.  Then  a  brine  was  made  fo  ftrong 
•*  that  the  -water  could  diflblve  no  mpre  fait.  The  meat  was 
**  walhed  in  this  brine,  and  again  well  fiilted,  as  before  ;  and 
"  laftly,  the  caiks  were  filled  up  with  the  brine.  Related  by 
*'■  a  Capt.  Norr'iSi  who  .had  often  feen  meat  fo  preferved." 
Collins  on  Salt  and  Fiftxeries,  p.  16.  In  Maryland,  a  Capt.  Blnny 
flau^-htered  beeves  in  jJuguJi,  and  faked  the  meat  into  barrels, 
as  provifion  for  his  feamen. — He  immediately  failed  witli  it  on 
a  voyage  to  Barladoa  :  what  of  it  remained  he  brought  back 
to  Maryland,  perfectly  good.  The  cattle  were  killed  from 
the  pafture,  one  by  one,  and  immediately  cut  into  pieces,  and 
thrown  into  tubs  of  cold  water  for  cooling  the  meat  ;  the  wa- 
ter ofien  renewed.  When  the  meat  was  cool,  it  was  drained, 
aB.d  inftantly  faked.     The  pieces  were  then  packed  and  prefTcd 


INTIMATIONS.  44I 

I  believe  then  juices  of  meat  cured  with  fait,  and 
the  boiled^  are  of  an  excellent  mellowing  quality.  ^  All 
that  can  be  faved,  is  therefore  to  be  fo  boiled,  and 
poured  cold  and  clear  on  the  meat  in  the  barrels  as 
above.  When  animals  faft  long,  the  blood  and 
juices  retire  from  the  extremities  to  the  large  blood 
veffels  in  the  centre  of  the  body,  in  proportion  as  re- 
pleniiliment  is  withheld  and  the  animal  is  weakened. 
Hence  it  is  that  the  animal  bleeds  fo  much  freer,  and 
more  plentifully,  after  long  fading.  Here  as  in  pre- 
ferving  fifli  in  barrels,  the  operations  are  diftinftly, 
to Jdlt,  and  to  cure.  (^See  the  Dutch  mode  of  barrel- 
ing herrings,  page  418)  and  the  boiled  juices,  from 
the  faked  meat,  muft  ferve  to  beef  what  the  pickle  of 
fifli  cured  is  to  the  herrings.  On  boiling  the  blood 
and  juices  with  the  pickle,  the  firmer  parts  fettle  in  a 
mafs  on  (landing,  and  the  liquor  pours  off  clear. 

Let  not  the  barrels  of  meat  be  expofed  to  the  fun, 
as  is  often  the  cafe,  by  rolling  them  out  of  doors  and 
leaving  them  there  longer  than  need  be.  Damp  is  , 
bad  for  fait  meat  as  well  as  for  frefli ;  therefore  flore 
the  barrels  in  a  dry  place,  the  coolest  to  be  found. 
It  is  recommended  to  cut  up  beef  with  a  long,  iharp 
knife,  having  a  fteel  plate  back  faw  ;  with  this  to  faw 
the  bones,  inftead  of  mangling  with  an  ax  :  that  the 

pieces 

clofe  into  barrels,  and  headed  up.  This  account  I  had  from 
Capt.  Binny  ;  and  alfo  from  my  brother,  for  vhoni  Capt, 
Binny  failed. 


442  NOTES    AND 

pieces  be  but  4  to  6Ibs.  that  to  a  barrel  there  be  nfed, 
befides  fea  fait,  fugar  2  or  3  lbs.  the  coarfe  brown 
{QTt',falt  petre  4  ounces.  It  is  obferved  that  Irijh 
prQvifwns  are  in  demand  throughout  Europe  :  In  the 
fize  of  the  pieces  they  differ  from  the  reft  of  Europe, 
which  gives  a  preference ;  and  it  is  efpecially  in  cut- 
ting their  pork  into  pieces  of  4lbs.  to  fuit  fmall 
meffes  ;  about  50  pieces  to  a  barrel  of  aoolbs.  h 
therefore  is  in  greater  demand,  and  bears  a  better 
price. 

As  coming  from  the  intelligent  Admiral  K?ic\vles, 
and  as  it  is  meant  of  meat  for  the  ufe  of  the  Britifli 
navy,  which  required  the  befl  provifions,  the  follow- 
ing mud  be  worth  fome  attention.  He  fays,  ikin 
and  cut  the  ox  into  pieces  fit  for  ufe,  as  quick  as 
poiuble,  foon  as  killed,  and  fait  the  meat  whilll  itis 
hot.  For  v.'hich  purpofe  fait  petre  and  bay  fait  are 
pounded  together  and  made  hot  in  an  oven,  of  each 
equal  parts ;  fprinkle  the  meat  with  this  at  the  rate 
of  two  ounces  to  the  pound.  Lay  the  pieces  on  flielv- 
ing  boards  to  drain  24  hours  :  turn  them  and  repeat 
the  fame,  to  lay  24  hours  more.  Wipe  each  piece 
dry  with  coarfe  dry  cloths.  Common  fait  made  hot  in 
an  oven  is  then  taken  out  and  mixed  with  one  third 
of  brown  fugar.  Rub  the  pieces  well  with  this  mix- 
ture and  pack  them  into  barrels,  allowing  -^ib  of  the 
mixture  to  each  pound  of  meat.  It  will  keep  good 
feveral  years.     The  fame  procefs  is  applied  to  pork, 

only 


INTIMATIONS, 


443 


only  giving  it  more  fait  and  lefs  of  fugar.  The  pre- 
fervation  of  the  meals  depends  equally  upon  their  be- 
ing hot  'ujhcn  first  failed.  One  pound  of  beef  re- 
quires two  ounces  of  fait  petre  and  two  ounces  of 
bay  fait,  becaufe  it  is  to  be  fprinkled  twice ;  an 
ounce  of  each  to  a  pound  of  beef  both  times.  Yet 
beware,  and  firfl  make  experiment. 

rJLLOJTS. 

Mr.  Forbes  has  a  good  chapter  on  fallows :  and 
the  Bath  Letters  fpeak  of  a  comparative  experiment 
between  fallow  left  rough  from  the  plow,  through 
winter,  and  fome  that  was  harrowed  after  the  plow. 
This  lafl  proved  much  the  beft  in  a  barley  crop 
fowed  the  following  fpring.  In  an  entire  lield  of 
wheat,  a  part  of  the  feed  was  plowed  and  then  rak- 
ed in  ;  another  part  bandhoed  after  being  plowed  in, 
as  ufual when  fown  amongfl:  maize  plants;  and  a 
part  lef[  rough  after  being  plowed  in.  This  lafl  was 
fo  fuperior  that  (and  from  other  particulars  and  in- 
flances  of  fmooth  drelTed  ground  compared  with  a 
part  in  its  rough  flate  as  left  by  plowing  in  the 
grain)  I  afterwards  generally  left  ray  wheat  un- 
touched on  being  plowed  in,  without  raking,  har- 
rowing, hoeing  or  rolling  the  ground.  On  the 
other  hand  it  proved  on  an  experiment  I  mavie,  that 
a  part  fallowed  and  then  harrowed  fmooth  and  fo 
left  through  a  winter,  was  preferable  for  receiving 

feed 


444  NOTES    AND 

feed  and  giving  a  fuhfequent  crop,  to  what  was  left 
rough.  Such,  fo  far  as  thefe  experiments  were 
made,  is  the  difference  between  fallow  and  fown 
ground  htmgfmoothed  or  left  rough  :  the  foil  a  clay- 
ioara. 

LETTSOM's    TEAST. 

Do£ior  Lettfom  in  his  Hints  for  promoting  Bene- 
ficence, fays — "  Thicken  2  quarts  of  water  with  4 
ounces  fine  flour  ;  boil  it  half  an  hour.  Sweeten  it 
with  3  ounces  Mufcovado  fugar.  When  almost  cold, 
pour  it  on  4  fpoonsful  of  yeaft  into  an  earthen  or 
ftone  jar,  deep  enough  to  allow  the  yeafl:  to  rife : 
fliake  it  well  together,  and  place  it  a  day  near  a 
fire :  then  pour  oif  the  thin  liquor  at  top :  fhake 
the  remainder,  and  clofe  it  up  for  ufe.  It  is  to  be 
drained  through  a  fieve.  Keep  ic  in  a  cool  cellar, 
or  hang  it  fome  depth  in  a  well. — Some  of  it  is  to 
be  kept,  always,  for  renewing  or  maldng  the  next 
quantity  wanted.'* 

I  had  a  German  brewer,  in  my  family,  who  ufcd 
to  keep  family  yeaft  in  a  cafe  bottle ;  and  he  pour- 
ed half  a  gill  of  brandy,  very  gently,  to  float  on 
the  top  of  the  yeaft,  in  a  cafe  bottle  containing 
about  two  quarts,  for  excluding  the  air.  When- 
ever he  found  his  yeall  was  inclined  to  be  flat,  he 
mixed  in  it  half  a  gill  to  a  gill  of  brandy,  according 

to 


INTIMATIONS. 


445 


to  the  quantity  of  ycafl:  left  in  the  bottle ;  and  let- 
ling  it  fland  a  while,  fhook  it  up  again  and  thctr. 
ufed  it.  The  bed  brewers  stro?2g  beer  yeast,  I  pre- 
furae  fliould  be  begun  with  :  and  then  a  good  bodi- 
ed rich  yeafl  may  be  kept  up,  by  renewals. 

POTATO-TEAST,   by  Kir  by. 

The  principles  in  this,  are  allied  to  the  prepara- 
tions for  producing  Anderfon's  potato  fpirit.  Kirby 
recommends  the  mealy  fort  to  be  boiled  till  thorough- 
ly foft ;  mafhed  till  very  fmooth ;  with  hot  water 
put  to  the  mafh,  till  of  the  confiftency  of  beer  ycaft, 
and  not  thicker.  To  every  pound  of  potatoes  add 
two  ounces  of  coarfe  fugar  or  melaiTes.  When  but 
jufl  warm,  for  every  pound  of  potatoes,  ftir  in  two 
fpoonsful  of  yeafl,  and  keep  it  gently  warm  till 
done  fermenting.  He  fays,  a  pound  of  potatoes 
yields  near  a  quart  of  yeaft,  to  keep  three  months : 
and  he  direfts  that  the  dough  lie  eight  hours  before 
it  be  put  to  the  oven.  This  Ihews  that  the  ferment, 
however  fure,  is  Cow.  I  would  have  the  potatoes 
to  be  thoroughly  ripe,  and  w^W  fprouted ;  for  the 
reaipns  mentioned  under  the  head  of  potato  fpirit. 

PERSIAN-l-^EAST, 

A  tea-cup  full  of  fplit  or  bruifed  peas  has  poured 
on  it  a  pint  of  boiling  water,  and  is  then  fet  on  the 

hearth 


44^  NOTES    AND 

hearth  or  other  \ranii  place,  all  night.  Next  mom- 
^^iig  the  water  will  have  on  it  a  froth,  and  will  be 
good  yeafl:.  This  quantity  makes  as  ranch  bread 
as  two  lix-penny  (llerl.)  loaves  ;  very  good,  and 
very  light.  It  is  the  yeaft  ufed  on  the  coaft  of 
Perfia. 

CASTOR    OIL. 

Though  this  mild  family  purgative  is  produced  in 
quantities  in  fome  of  the  illands  ia  the  Weft  Indies, 
yet  it  is  fometimes  hardly  to  be  got  in  the  fhops,  in 
the  United  States,  or  is  very  ftale.  It  is  produced 
from  the  feeds  of  the  Palma  Cbristi  plant,  common 
ia  our  gardens.  There  are  two  forts  in  this  coun- 
try ;  but  that  which  has  been  long  known,  is  the 
moft  common,  has  a  lighi  or  bluijb  coloured  stalk,  is 
the  fort  ufed  in  the  Weft  Indies,  as  I  am  afiured  by 
a  refpeclable  family  from  thence,  who  add,  that  the 
Palma  Chritli  having  a  reddijh  stalk,  is  never  ufed, 
it  being  fufpected  of  having  haHh  if  not  poifonous 
qualities.  Further  they  fay,  that  of  the  two  modes 
of  procuring  the  oil,  that  by  exprejfion  is  preferred. 
— Yet  Labat  and  others  prefer  boiling  the  feeds. 
The  reddilh  fort  was  but  lately  introduced  as  a  curi- 
ofity  in  a  gnrden  near  Philadelphia. 

Strip  the  nuts  of  their  hulks.  Boil  them  in  wa- 
ter :  and  as  the  oil  rifes  ikim  it  off.     When  it  yields 

no 


INTIMATIONS.  447 

no  more  to  the  water,  prefs  the  grounds  wmpped, 
loofcly,  in  a  coarfe  cloth.  This  oil  is  fweet,  with- 
out bad  tafle  or  fmell,  and  as  clear  as  olive  oil. 
P.  Labat,  Bruife  the  fee^s,  and  boil  them.  The 
oil  itimraed  off  is  much  purer,  and  is  capable  of  be- 
ing kept  longer  than  what  is  obtained  by  exprejfit)n  ; 
becaufe  the  water  detains  the  muciiage,  which  is  in 
a  large  quantity  in  the  exprelTed  oil,  and  which  dil- 
pofes  it  to  fpoil  fooner.     Edfnb.  Difpenf.  An.  1794. 

Dr.  Sim?7io?is  fays  of  Palma-christi  and  its  oil,  in 
Dr.  V/rig/jt*s  book  of  Medical  Plants  in  Jamaica, 
that  when  the  bunches  begin  to  turn  black,  thev 
are  gathered,  dried  in  the  fun,  and  the  feeds  picked 
out  and  put  up  for  ufe :  that  the  bed  preparation 
of  it  is  thus :  a  large  iron  pot  is  half  filled  with  wa- 
ter ;  the  nuts  being  beat  in  parcels,  in  deep  w^ooden 
mortars,  are  then  thrown  into  the  pot,  and  gently 
boiled  two  hours  under  conflant  stirring.  The  oil 
then  fwims  mixed  with  a  white  froth,  and  is  ikim- 
med  off  till  no  more  rifes.  The  ikimmings  are 
heated  in  a  fmall  iron  pot,  and  ftrained  through  a 
cloth.  When  cold  it  is  bottled  up.  T/jus  7nadc  it 
is  clear,  and  well  flavored.  An  EngHlh  gallon  of 
the  feeds  may  yield  two  pounds  of  oil,  which  is  a 
Jarge  proportion.  In  lamps  it  burns  clear,  and  has 
no  offenfive  fmell.  It  anfwers  all  the  purpofes  of 
the  painter,  and  for  ointments  and  plaiflers.  It 
purges  witliout  llimulus,  and  i>  given  to  infants  to 

purge 


44^  NOTES    AND 

• 

purge  off  meconium.  All  oils  are  noxious  to  in- 
fects ;  and  the  caftor  oil  kills  and  expels  them. — It 
is  given  as  a  purge,  after  ufing  the  cabbage-bark 
fome  days.  It  is  remarkably  fuccefsfal  in  conflipa- 
tion  and  belly-ach  ;  fits  well  on  the  ftomach  ;  allays 
the  fpafm,  and  produces  plentiful  evacuation,  efpe- 
cially  if  at  the  fame  time  fomentations  or  warm  bath 
are  ufed. 

rURNIP-FLT. 

It  is  faid  to  be  a  fuccefsful  method  of  avoiding 
damage  to  young  turnip  plants  by  flies,  to  mix 
every  two  pounds  of  feed  with  a  quarter  pound  of 
fulphur  in  fine  powder,  to  ftand  ten  or  twelve 
hours ;  and  then  fow  the  feed.  Quere :  would 
wheat,  when  the  feed  has  been  fo  treated  with  ful- 
phur, avoid  the  Heflian-fly  ? 

CHEESE. 

Mr.  Tivamley  was  many  years  a  great  dealer  ia 
cheefe,  annually  vifited  the  dairies  of  Glofterfliire, 
Wiltiliire,  &c.  and  bought  the  cheefes  of  entire 
choice  dairies.  He  made  obfervations  on  the  prac- 
tices of  the  cheefemakers ;  and  fays  that  the  princi- 
pal faults  in  the  cheefes  of  thofe  countries,  made  in 
inferior  dairies,  were  there  being  hove,  fpongy  or 
full  of  eves,  vvhey-fprings,  iliakes,  fplits,  loofe  or 

made 


INTIMATIONS.  449 

iTiaiie  of  unfetllcd  curd,  rank  or  flrong,  flying  out 
or  bulged  at  the  edges,  dry-crackt  or  huilcy  coated, 
bliftered  coats,  blue  pared  or  decayed,  fweet  ot 
funky,  ill-fmclling  from  tainted  maw-ikins.  Be 
careful  that  the  rennet  is  perfectly  found.  "  There 
is  no  making  good  goods  of  bad  materials." 

A  very  great  fault  is  the  hastily  breaking  and 
gathering  the  curd,  and  Jetting  it ;  each  of  which 
requires  minute  attention  Tmdifull  ti?ne.  Of  curd,  fee 
pa.  422. 

Driving  cows  far,  or  darfying  milk  far,  retards 
the  coming  of  the  curd  ;  fo  much  fo  that  inflread  of 
an  hour  or  two,  it  will  require  three,  four,  or  five 
hours ;  and  even  then  the  curd  is  in  fo  imperfeft  a 
flate  as  to  occafion  the  cheefe  heaving,  puffing  up  or* 
fplitting  :  and  it  will  not  anfwer  to  add  more  rennet 
for  quickening  the  coming  of  curd  that  is  too  flow. 

The  proper  warmth  of  milk  when  receiving  rennet 
is  only  milk  v/arm  ;  or  perhaps  rather  about  85  or 
90  degrees  of  Farenheit.  If  it  is  too  cool,  add  fome 
wanned  milk,  but  let  it  not  boil  in  warming.  If  it 
becomes  too  cold  after  the  rennet  is  put  to  it,  add 
hot  luater  when  the  curd  is  nearly  come  ;  which  will 
give  a  due  firmnefs  to  the  curd.  But  it  is  of  import- 
ance that,  before  the  rennet  is  put  to  the  milk,  there 
be  thrown  into  it  at  the  rate  of  two  handsful  o'i  fait 

F  f  to 


4SC  NOTES    AND 

to  the  milk  of  ten  or  twelve  cows ;  which  will  tend 
to  make  the  rennet  work  quick,  prevent  fweet  or 
funky  cheefe,  make  the  cheefe  all  alike  fair,  and  pre- 
vent flip  curd,  by  occafioning  the  curd  to  be  firm  and 
fmk  readily  and  equally.  Mr.  Marjhall  adds,  for 
making  the  curd  come  all  at  the  fame  time,  cover  the 
milk  with  a  cloth  whilfl  the  rennet  is  in  it. 

The  great  fault,  continues  Mr.  T^j;a?nlcy,  is  in  dif- 
turbing  the  milk  too  foon,  before  the  curd  is  perfe£i:. 
It  is  firfl  a  weak  foft  curd  called y?//>  curd ;  in  which 
ftate  it  is  unfit  for  making  good  cheefe :  when  it 
ftands  fufficiently  long  after  this  ftate,  it  becomes  a 
firm  perfect  curd  fit  for  cheefe.  In  w^hatever  ftate  it 
is  when  it  is  firft  broke  or  ftirred,  in  that  ftate  it  will 
continue  ;  and  can  never  be  made  better  by  adding 
rennet  or  other  means. 

Neglect  not  to  put/alt  to  the  milk  when  the  ren- 
net is  about  to  be  applied ;  and  inftead  of  an  hour 
kt  the  curd  be  undifturbed  during  one  and  an  half 
or  two  hours,  or  more  if  requifite  for  obtaining  a 
full,  firm,  and  perfect  curd ; — dindjink  the  curd  with 
a  fifter  rather  than  break  it.  For  finking  it,  a  long 
\vooden.or  lath  knife  is  to  cut  the  curd  from  top  to 
bottom,  crofling  it  many  times  ;  then  with  a  Ceve 
prefs  it  down:  when  having  fettled  it  well  down, 
let  it  rest  a  quarter  hour.  The  whey  being  laded 
out,  the  curd  lies  folid  ;  then  cut  injiices,  and  work 

it 


INTIMATIONS.  45J 

it  into  the  vat  with  as  httle  breaking  it  as  pofTible. 
Breaking  it  fmall  in  the  tub  and  into  the  vat  reduces 
the  cheefe  in  quality  and  alio  in  quantity ;  for  the 
fat  Is  thereby  more  apt  to  be  fqueezed  out. 

There  are  he  fays,  perfons  making  good  checfes, 
who  might  make  better  and  more,  if  they  did  not 
fqiieeze  cut  fo  much  of  the  fat  in  breaking.  The 
whey  that  finl  comes  is  the  thinneft.  If  that  thin 
whey  was  firil  fcparated  before  breaking  ike  curd^  it 
vs'ould  leave  the  cream  in  the  checfe,  with  the  lofs  of 
but  very  little  fqueezed  out  in  putting  it  in  the  vat : 
but  when  broke  fmall  amongft  the  whey  the  rich 
parts  are  fqueezed  and  v.afhed  out  among  the  thin 
wh:?y.  Where  there  are  bits  of  flip  curd  floating  on 
the  whey,  they  are  taken  off  and  carried  away  with 
the  whey,  as  they  would  damage  the  cheefe.  The 
befl  chcefemakers  let  the  curd  fland  t\vo  hours  in- 
flead  of  one  and  an  half;  by  which  the  curd  be- 
comes fo  firm  and  perfeft  that  it  needs  no  more  than 
to  be  cut  and  fliced,  put  in  the  vat  clofe  packed,  and 
then  to  the  prcfs.  A  good  v.'hcy  is  greenifli.  It  is 
reckoned  on,  that  the  milk  requifite  for  making  one 
pound  of  butter,  will  yield  two  pounds  of  cheefe. 

RICH    CHEESE. 

New  milk  makes  the  fine  checfes  .for  market, 

without  any  addition  of  cream :    but  a  rich  cheefe 

F  f  z  for 


45^  NOTES    AND 

for  Jiigh  days,  has  "  a  meal  extraordinary  of  cream 
*'  added  to  the  new  milk.  Care  mufl:  be  obfervcd 
"  that  the  curd  fliould  not  be  funk  in  lefs  than  two 
"  hours :  two  and  an  half  or  three  hours  may  be 
"  better." 

SLIP-CURD    CHEESE. 

"  To  fix  quarts  of  new  milk  warm  from  the  cow, 
the  ilrokings  befl,  put  two  fpoonsful  of  rennet,  to 
ftand  three  quarters  of  an  hour,  or  until  the  milk 
forms  a  fufHcient  Jlip-curd.  With  a  fpoon  lay  it  in 
the  vat,  without  breaking  it,  and  place  a  trencher  or 
fiat  board  on  it.  Prefs  it  with  a  four  pound  weight ; 
or  if  it  inclines  to  be  hard,  a  lighter  weight,  turning 
it  with  a  dry  cloth  once  an  hour ;  and  when  fti5" 
fhift  it  daily  into  frefli  grafs  or  rufhes.  It  may  be 
cut  in  ten  or  fourteen  days.  Its  bcft  condition  is  to 
have  it  run  or  diffolve  into  a  creamy  confulence." 
Nothing  but  weak  half  fonned  curd  called  flip-curd 
will  produce  it.  It  is  the  cream  cheefe  of  Philadel- 
phia. 

RENNET-BJG  or  MAW^SKIN. 

"  Rennet  is  the  produce  of  the  ftomach  of  a  calf 
that  has  fed  on  milk  only ;  and  the  calf  killed  be- 
fore the  digeltion  is  perfeftcd.     Though  this  rennet 

readily 


INTIMATIONS. 


45: 


readily  coagulates  milk,  yet  if  put  to  milk  already 
coagulated,  it  then  diiTolves  it. 

*'  Soon  as  the  maw,  taken  from  the  calf,  is  cold, 
fwill  it  a  little  in  water  :  then  rub  it  well  with  fine 
powdered  fait;  next  fill  and  cover  it  with  fait. 
Some  cut  the  flomachs  open  and  fpread  them  in  fait, 
in  layers  one  over  another,  and  Tet  them  lie  in  the 
brine  they  produce ;  fometimes  turning  them,  four, 
{i^i,  or  nine  months :  then  they  dry  them  ftretched 
out  on  flicks.  When  dry,  ufe  them.  They  are  bell 
to  be  a  year  old  when  ufed.  Keep  them  diflant  from 
fire,  for  avoiding  rancidity.'*  l-vjamky.  A  dry 
cool  place  is  bed.  See  pa.  42  \ .  Never  ufe  any  that 
Is  in  the  leafl:  tainted. 

RENNET-LIQUOR. 

"  Take  two  fkins  to  a  gallon  of  pure  fpving  water  : 
the  water  having  been  boiled  and  made  into  a  brine 
that  will  ftrongly  bear  an  egg.  When  the  brine  is 
made  blood  warm,  cut  the  /kins  into  pieces,  and 
flecp  them  in  the  brine  twenty-four  hours.  It  may 
thqn  be  ufed  ;  about  a  tea-cup  full  to  the  milk  often 
cows :  but  obferve  that  a  juft  quantity  be  applied  : 
for  if  too  7nuch  the  chcefe  becomes  ftrong  and  liable  to 
heave;  \i  too  little  the  cheefe  will  be  mild,  bat  the 
curd  will  be  a  long  while  before  it  can  be  properly 
broke  or  funk,   and  may  become  damaged  before  it 

is 


454  KOTES    AND 

is  firm  enough  to  be  committed  fa  the  prefs.  The  liquor 
is  kept  cool  in  jars  or  bottles.  The  Bath  Letters  fay, 
in  the  brine  boil  fweet  briar  leaves,  rofe  leaves  and 
fiowers,  clnnaiaon,  mace,  cloves  aod  other  aromatics, 
briildy  till  a  fourth  is  reduced  :  pour  it  milk  warm  on 
the  mav.-  iiiia  and  flice  a  lemon  into  it.  Thea  fiand- 
iDg  a  day  or  two,  it  is  ftrained  and  bottled  ciofe.'* 
I'-jsaniley.     See  pa.  422. 

ITie  headlands  of  arable  fields,  along  the  fides  of 
fences,  accumulate  foil  from  the  fields  oq  every  bout 
of  the  plows.     This  accretion  of  foil  confines  water 
on  the  fields  fo  23  to  chill  them,  and  damage  grow- 
ing crops.     For  reducing  this  mifcbief  and  increafing 
manure^  plow  up  a  portion  of  the  headland  and  then 
fen  cattle  on  it,  till  it  becomes  very  rich  with  dung 
and  urine.     Then  having  another  portion  recently 
plowed,  pen  the  catt^le  on  this  in  like  manner  j  and 
the  fomser  portion  is  again  plowed  for  covering  the 
dung  and  mixing  it  with  the  earth ;  which  is  then 
either  immediately  carried  away,  and  as  a  manure 
laid  on  other  ground,  or  heaped  up  high  and  covered 
from  the  fun,  to  remain  fo  till  wanted  for  manuring 
grouGd.     During  the  fummer,  and  till  cold  weather 
fDrbids,  Other  portions  of  the  headlands  are  to  be 
plov;cdand  penned  with  cattle  in  the  fame  manner  in 
iiucceiliGn.     This  is  preferable  to  cGn^'-penmng  on  lots 

for 


INTIMATIONS.  455 

for  tobacco,  as  is  pra^lifed ;  and  it  is  making  a  cam' 
post  without  carting  the  earth  to  a  dunghil  or  yard. 

GRASS, 

The^ne  qua  non  of  live-stock  !  the  eflential  of 
DUNG  !  the  nurfery  of  corn,  and  of  all  farming 


PRODUCTS : 

HE  AT ICE, 

*'  When  we  entered  the  Seminary  at  Syracufe, 
fays  Count  Stolberg^  the  heat  was  not  extreme  ;  but 
when  in  lefs  than  an  hour  we  returned,  it  met  us 
hot  as  if  it  came  out  of  an  oven,  we  being  then  in  the 
open  air,  unprotefted  by  fliade.  It  continued  thus 
hot  about  three  hours.  We  were  advifed  [oJJmt  up 
our  windows,  leaving  only  light  to  read  by,  and 
fprinkle  our  rooms  ivilh  water.  The  air  in  the  houfe 
thus  became  fupportable.  Farenheit's  thermometer 
afcended  from  8 1  ^-  to  1 01  i  degrees.  We  durfl  not 
leave  the  houfe  all  the  afternoon  ;  but  cooled OMx{d-^^% 
with  ice ;  and  ftrengthened  ourfelves  with  v/ine. 
The  pra<5tice  of  taking  ice,  in  Italy  and  Sicily,  is  con- 
fidered  as  an  indifpenfible  refrelliment ;  and  as  a 
powerful  remedy  in  many  difeafes.  The  phyficians 
of  thefe  countries  do  not  give  many  medicines ;  but 
frequently  direft  a  fevere  regimen  :  and  prevent  the 
ill  efTcds  of  various  difeafes  by  fufFering  the  fick,  for 

feveral 


4S^  NOTZS    AND 

feveral  days,  to  take  nothing  but  water  cxJed  ivitb 
icef  Iweet  oranges,  and  ire  J  fruits. — Iced  miikj  fruits  y 
cbccolaic,  and  other  iced  viands,  are  found  in  mofl  of 
their  towns.  They  Y^rzhr  fnow,  as  it  is  more  eafily 
preferred  than  ice.  iLh^fnow is  ckfely  packed  toge- 
ther, and  covered  with  flraw.** 

POJTERT. 

The  earthen  ware  made  in  America,  is  g!a%c'd  uitb 
lead :  and  the  glazing  compoiition  is  laid  on  very  fav- 
ingly,  thin  and  flight :  fo'that  it  is  not  only  worn 
away  by  vegetables  and  every  thing  acidulous,  but 
is  apt  to  fcale  o5'  and  be  fwaliowed  wirh  meat, 
greens,  and  drinks.  It  is  pure  I^ady  and  conle- 
qu^ntly  a  ftrong  poifon.  The  ccecJ:  of  lead  on  the 
heakh  of  glaziers  and  houfe  painters,  is  daily  feen. 
A  ioumeyman  or  working  painter  may  live,  conti- 
nually dying,  fix  or  eight  years  as  a  large  allowance. 
The  mafrer  who  fees  that  the  work  is  dene,  and 
works  but  little.  Jives  longer.  M^  are  groaning  and 
pining,  under  colicks,  gripes,  cramps,  rheuraaiifms, 
aches  and  pains,  who  continue  to  Inuffup  and  inhale 
the  vapours  of  lead  for  fome  time  ; .  or  who  gradu- 
ally fwallow  fmall  portions  of  it  with  their  milk, 
greens,  cider  and  drinks,  di^ufed  from  the  glazing 
made  of  Uad,  The  people  of  New-England,  drink 
vaxicQ.  cider,  and  vi{z  much  vinegar,  in  country  fami- 
lies; 


INTIMATIONS.  457 

lies ;  and  there  have  been  inflances  of  whole  families 
afflicted  as  above. 

Lead  requiring  but  little  fuel  to  melt  it,  is  the 
cheapell  or  eafieil  material  for  producing  common 
glazing.  It  is  therefore  impofed  on  the  inattentive 
people  of  the  country,  who  buy  the  ware  without 
knowing  its  bad  qualities,  or  without  caring  for  them: 
and  this  lead  is  imported  from  foreign  countries  ; 
whilfl  our  own  country  abounds  in  materials  for  pro- 
ducing the  mod  perfect,  durable,  and  wholefome 
glazing.  Thefe  materials  are  ivood-afloes  2.wdi  fund. 
On  converfing  with  a  potter  in  Philadelphia,  his  ob- 
jection to  the  ufe  of  thefe  materials  was  their  requir- 
ing more  labour  and  fuel ;  but  if  I  would  prepare 
them  for  glazing  any  pieces  I  might  want,  he  would 
lay  them  on,  and  find  a  place  in  his  kiln,  for  giving 
a  good  glazing.  If  legiflators  were  duly  fenfible  of 
all  this,  their  energy  might  find  means  for  caufmg 
the  change  from  lead  to /and,  for  glazing  earthen 
ware  ;  and  of  courfe,  for  protecting  the  health  of  the 
people. 

A  young  man  of  the  name  of  Cook,  a  brickmaker, 
in  the  time  of  the  revolution  war,  informed  me  he 
would  erect  an  earthen  ware  manufactory,  if  he  knew 
how  to  glaze  the  ware.  Having  a  fmall  air  furnace, 
for  my  amufement,  he  made  fmall  clay  cakes,  and 
the  glazing  materials  were  prepared  and  laid  on  the 

dry 


45^  NOTES    AND 

dry  cakes :  and  being  fluxed  in  the  furnace,  the 
glazing  was  very  fatisfaftory  to  him.  He  then  got 
^ome  fine  potters  clay  out  of  my  bank,  and  made  a 
number  of  little  cakes  of  it,  mixt  with  various  pro- 
portions oi  ground  /and.  Thefe  were  burnt  in  the 
furnace  j  and  one  efpecially  was  a  fpeciraen  of  a  very 
excellent  stoneware  :  which  is  vaftly  preferable,  in 
its  qualities,  to  earthen  ware ;  and  is  greatly  wanted 
in  America.  The  heavy  freight  paid  on  fo  bulky 
and  cbeap  an  article  of  imported  merchandize,  ren- 
ders stoneware  fcarce  :  and  gives  an  inviting  open- 
ing to  induflrious  manufacturers  of  flonevv'are,  in 
America. 

SEASONING  WOOD. 

Wood  fcafoned  by  the  air  is  left  in  the  fame  ftatc 
as  if  feafoned  by  water  ;  which  is  with  the  lofs  of 
its  fap  or  juices,  being  waflied  or  evaporated  away. 
It  is  fooner  effected  by  water  than  by  air.  The 
wood,  then,  only  confifts  of  its  fibrous  and  folid 
parts ;  which  are  confiderably  concentrated  by  be- 
ing dried :  yet  the  mafs  is  not  without  numerous 
interftices,  from  whence  the  fap  had  been  expelled 
by  the  air  or  the  water.  In  dry  weather  thefe  con- 
tain little  elfe  than  dry  air :  but  in  moid  weather 
they  become  charged  with  humidity  from  the  at- 
raofphere  to  fuch  a  degree  at  times  as  to  fwell  and 
even  burfl  boards  fo  feafoned. 

Shrinking 


w 


INTIMf^TIONS.  459 

Shrinking  and  fwelling  of  boards  happen  accord- 
ing as  moiilurc  is  abfent  or  prelent.  If  feafoned 
wood  can  be  defended  from  the  impreflions  of  wa- 
ter, it  never  will  fwell.  I  effected  this  when  paint- 
ing a  landfcape  on  feafoned  poplar,  which  warped 
or  became  flraight  according  as  were  the  changes 
in  the  ftate  of  the  atmofphere.  I  covered  the  back 
the  fides  and  the  ends  well,  with  painters  drying 
oil,  at  a  time  when  the  board  was  flraight,  and  it 
never  afterwards  warped.* 

Wood  feafoned  by  Jire  with  quicknefs  ivbilst  full 
offap,  does  not  imbibe  water,  as  air  and  water  fea- 
foned wood  ;  becaufe,  as  it  feems,  the  fap  is  infpif- 
fated  by  xhzfudden  heat  fo  as  to  fill  or  moflly  fill  up 
the  interfaces ;  and  being  fo  fixed  and  hardened,  it 
excludes  water.  The  fap  thus  eured,  is  prevented 
from  fermenting  and  rotting  tiie  infide  of  the  wood, 
and  from  flying  off  in  vapour. 

A  pair  of  cart  wheels,  foon  as  made  were  tarred 
over  thick  and  fet  up  reding  on  the  fide  of  a  houfe 
a  year  or  two.  When  put  to  ufe  the  fellows  broke 
and  fhewed  a  found  csternal  furface,  and  the  reft  a 

dark, 

*  "  Equal  parts  of  rofm,  turpentine,  and  bees  wax  were 
mtlted  together,  'well  fkimmed,  and  with  a  brufli  laid  boiling 
hot  on  a  board  6  feet  long,  1 8  inches  wide  ;  which  v.as  kept 
in  water  19  months,  without  having  imbibed  any  water,  or 
having  its  coat  or  cement  damaged.'*     z.  Rep. 


460  NOTES    AND 

dark,  rotten,  coarfe  powder.  Here  the  unfeafoned 
wood  being  coated  over  fo  as  to  obftruft  the  fap 
from  evaporating,  the  {2.^  fermented^  it  is  prefumed, 
and  rotted  the  inlide  of  the  folid  parts  of  the  tim- 
ber :  the  Ihell  or  outfide  of  the  timber  having  been 
feafoned,  or  lofl:  its  fap,  before  the  tar  was  applied. 
In  foreflis,  I  have  ftept  on  the  bodies  of  proflrate 
trees,  which  appeared  found  to  the  eye :  but  have 
broke  through  the  feafoned  cruft  to  a  mafs  of  rot- 
ten powder. 

% 

Sleeping  in  a  room  of  a  one  flory  brick  houfe 
then  lately  built  by  a  Doctor  Wharfield,  of  Elk- 
ridge,  Maryland ;  in  the  morning  I  admired  the 
wainfcoting  and  ceiling  of  the  room,  which  were 
made  of  poplar  boards ;  in  which  che  joints  could 
not  be  eafily  difcovered.  The  work  was  not  paint- 
ed.— I  fuppofed  the  boards  had  been  many  years 
feafoning  in  a  tobacco  houfe.  The  doftor  pointed 
to  two  lengthy  pits,  on  the  fide  of  a  hill ;  and  faid 
the  trees  were  felled  and  cut  off  into  logs,  which 
were  immediately  hauled  to  the  pits,  over  one  of 
which  a  log  at  a  time  was  fawed  into  boards  or 
planks,  and  immediately,  whilft  full  of  fap,  a  fire 
was  made  and  kept  burning  under  the  ftock  till  the 
boards  were  cured  ;  and  that  fome  of  the  wainfcot 
was  put  up  within  two  weeks  of  its  having  been  in 
the  growing  tree.  The  pits  were  alternately  em- 
ployed in  fawing  the  logs,  and  firing  the  flocks. 

Recommending 


INTIMATIONS.  461 

Recommending  to  a  {hip  carpenter,  the  trimming 
timber  roughly  in  the  woods,  and  there  feafoning 
the  pieces  by  fire,  he  objefted  it  would  render  the 
timber  hard  to  cut  and  dub.  Perhaps  coo  fome 
might  think  it  would  render  the  limber  too  durable. 
It  may  be  proper  to  contrail  for  its  being  fo  feafon- 
ed :  efpecially  for  national  Ihips. 

MelaJJcs*  and  Mufcovado  Sugar  Cleanfed. 

Weight,    24  melafles ;    ^4  water ;    6  charcoal 
thoroughly  charred.      Bruife  the  charcoal  grofsly. 
Mix  the  three  articles  in  a  caldron  ;  letting  the  mix- 
ture boil,  gently  on  a  clear  v/oodfire,  half  an  hour. 
Then  pour  it  through  a  draining  bag  j  and  place  it 
again  on  the  fire,  for  evaporating  the  fuperfluous 
water,    till  the  melaiTes  is  brought  to  its  original 
confidence.     The  lofs  is  fcarcely  any.     2.  Rep. 
0 
^SALTING   AXD   CURING   MEAT,    in   ENG- 
LAND. 

According  to  14  An.  pa.  267.  meat  for  family 
ufe,  in  England  receives  i!b  of  fait  and  los.  nitre 
to  every  i4tb  of  meat.  The  fait  and  nitre  to  be 
hc2itjine.     Rub  them  well  into  the  meat.     Lay  the 

pieces 

*  A  fyrup  of  the  conSftence  and  fweetnefs  of  homy ;  anci 
produced  by  the  labor  of  ajfes  in  grinding  fugar  ca^nes  :  thence 
melaifes  from  mel  and  afnut,  or  afles. 


4^2  KOTES    AND 

pieces  on  each  other,  during  a  month,  and  turn 
them  once  a  week.  Then  drain,  and  lliake  bran 
[perhaps  better  if  impalpable  clay  or  ochre]  over 
them,  for  abforbing  the  moillure.  Hang  the  pieces 
in  a  kitchen.  If  the  quantity  is  large,  then  in  a 
room  having  a  ftove  and  flue  round  it.  It  is  a  month 
in  drying — then  keep  it  in  an  airy,  dry  room. — For 
voyages  and  hot  countries,  foon  as  dried  pack  it  in 
faw-dust,  ftove  dried.*  Moisture  is  more  to  be  ap- 
prehended than  heat.  In  common  the  longer  meat 
is  kept  in  brine  the  falter  it  is ;  but  in  this  method 
it  never  varies. — Salting  for  Jhip  u/e  the  fait  is  ilb. 
to  81b.  of  meat ;  befides  4  i"ch  thick  of  fait  in 
packing.     See  p.  406.  and  of  Pork  cured  in  ochre 

page  437- 

MAIZE. 

Farmer  Shephard,  of  New  Jerfey,  informed  tTie 
Burlington  Society  of  Agriculture,  that  in  autumn  ^ 
1786  he  collected,  for  feed  to  his  next  year's  crop, 
a  quantity  of  corn  produced  on  stalks  luhicb  produc- 
ed two  ears.  The  crop  from  that  feed,  was  increaf- 
ed  much  beyond  what  he  had  been  accuflomed  to, 
even  to  10  bulhels  an  acre:  and  by  following  the 
fame  rule  in  faving  feed,  his  crops  increafed  10  60 

bufliels 

*  Perhaps  ftill  better  packed  in  an  arcrlngent  and  very  diy 
pure  clay  or  fullei's  earth. 


INTIMATIONS. 


463 


buCbels  an  acrej  with  three  or  four  ears  upon  a 
flalk. 

The  hufbandmen  of  America  would  do  well  to 
try  the  method  of  cultivating  maize  as  praftifed  in 
Italy,  France  and  Spain :  where  it  is  fown  very 
thick  in  broadcalt,  for  producing  fodder^  and  for 
stall  feeding  or  fci ling  ;  and  when  for  a  crop  cf  corn 
is  planted  in  fquares  of  two  feet :  and  even  then 
blades  are  dally  pulled  and  given  to  the  cattle; 
which  Mr.  Young  fays  accounts  for  the  ver}'  hieh 
order  of  all  the  cattle  in  the  fouth  of  France,  in 
Spain,  and  in  Italy,  in  lituations  clear  of  meadows. 
Planted  at  two  htt  there  are  10400  hills  an  acre, 
or  20800  plants  when  two  remain  in  a  hill.  la 
Maryland  are  about  1500  hills  having  two  to  three 
plants  each.  In  the  countn,-  cf  New  York,  in 
Auguft  I  admired  a  field  of  maize,  feemingly  grow- 
ing 2  4-  feet  apart,  perhaps  3  feet,  with  two  cr 
three  plants  in  a  hill.  It  was  the  only  field  I  faw 
of  that  appearance ;  fo  near  growing,  fo  ftout  ra- 
ther than  tall,  green  and  vigorous,  cafling  a  confi- 
derable  Ihadc  on  a  clean  mellow  ground.  The  cars 
and  taiTels  were  but  jufl  peeping  out.  By  informa- 
tion their  ground  commonly  yields  more  maize  by 
the  acre  than  the  ground  in  Maryland.  The  former 
always  manure  for  maize,  the  latter  do  not.  It  flill 
is  furprifing  to  me  that  maize  growing  fo  clofe, 

fliould 


464  NOTES    AND 

fhould  yield  fo  greatl}'',  but  it  is  well  to  make  fair 
experiment. 

WJSH,  FOR  BOARDS  or  STONE  WORK, 

In  Nova  Scotia  they  "wafli  rough  boards,  the 
rougher  the  better,  with  a  mixture  of  ftone  lime 
flacked  with  boiling  water,  whiting,  alum,  common 
fait.  The  alum  is  an  excellent  article  for  binding  ; 
fait  alfo  would  be  unexceptionable,  but  that  it  at- 
trafts  moifture  and  gives,  as  it  is  called.  The  above 
promifcs  to  be  a  good  whiie-iua/h, 

A  Black-'U'q/h,  which  1  have  experienced  efFe£lu- 
ally  resists  ivater,  is  made  of  tar  three  or  four  parts, 
and  fifli  oil  one  part,. intimately  mixed  in  a  pot  over 
a  flow  fire ;  which  is  laid  on  hot  with  a  brufh. 
Such  brufhes,  bound  with  iron  rings,  are  to  be  got 
at  {hops  for  fliipping.  For  giving  it  body,  add  im- 
palpable clay  or  ochre. 

A  grey-wafi  may  be  produced,  by  adding  more 
or  lefs  of  the  black-wafli  with  the  white-walh :  but 
I  w^ould  omit  the  fait,  as  doubtful ;  and  rhe  alum, 
as  unneccflary,  where  fo  binding  a  varnilh  as  the 
black-waOi  is  admitted. 

I  have  feen  a  fimple,  cheap  varniili  Oi  turpentine, 
ufed  in  fhips :  but  know  not  hov/  it  is  made.     Per- 

hapSy 


INTIMATIONS.  46^ 

haps,  as  that  of  tar  with  jijh  oil*  This  vamifh 
mixt  with  the  white-wafli,  it  feeras  would  produce 
a  wafli  excellent  in  quality,  and  of  a  cream  colour. 
— This  may  be  laid  on  plaftered  walls,  floors,  and 
platform-roofs,  for  excluding  moifture. 

There  is  great  neatnefs  in  well  plaflered  and 
white-waihed  rooms ;  eafily  renewed  ia  country 
places ;  but  town  fafhions  generally  prevail  over 
this  rural  method  of  fiuifhing  and  renewing  rooms 
in  country  habitations.  Where  objecf^ions  are  made 
to  the  glare  of  white,  this  glare  may  be  blunted  by 
adding  to  the  wafli  a  very  little  of  forae  o^her  co- 
lour. In  painting  on  lime-plaller,  perhaps  fpirit  of 
turpentine  or  linfeed  tea  are  better  than  oil. — 

PAUPERS, 

As  a  forerunner  to  promoting  employment,  be  bold 
in  amending  the  exifling  regulations  refpe£ting  the 
poor.  Principally  provide  checks  on  the  magistrates 
and  o-verfeers ;  who  through  levity,  wealvnefs,  or 
other  caufe,  fuffer  their  country  to  be  fliamefully 
abufed,  in  at  lead  fome  of  the  United  States ;  and 
involve  in  their  las  government  a  marked  encou- 
ragement of  fome  of  the  greatefl  evils  that  can  en- 
feeble nations  or  affe£l  mankind — Idlenefs  and  de^ 
G  g  bauchery^ 

*  It  is  faid  to  be  produced  from  a  mixture  of  turpentine 
and  rofin. 


466  NOTES    AND 

hauchery^  with  their  companion  ivretchednefs :  for, 
John  will  be  iit  cq/e — will  be  idle — will  be  a  Jhfy 
becaufe  John  can  u-bine  himfelf  into  the  fociety  of 
public  paupers,  and  there  be  provided  for,  as  a 
drone,  at  the  expenfe  of  the  induflrious  and  fober 
citizens.  The  laws  provide  for  the  poor, — not  for 
the  whining  impoftor  :  and  it  is  defirable  that  they 
be  provided  for ;  but  they  fliould  alfo  be  kept  to 
forae  employment.  Paupers  capable  of  but  whittling 
a  ftick,  may  be  induced  to  pafs  their  time  in  pro- 
ducing toys  for  other  people,  as  the  Germans  in 
Europe  are  ufcd  to  fupply  our  babies,  little  and  big. 

A  fleadinefs  in  work,  of  any  fort,  according  to 
the  abilities  of  the  refpeflive  paupers,  would  leffen 
the  public  burthen ;  both  by  the  income  gained 
from  it, — and  from  impoflors  ilirinking  from  a  com- 
pullive  work  under  conjinementy  when  they  can,  uu- 
confincd,  find  work  at  large. 

The  bcfl:  fupport  the  poor  can  receive  is  from 
their  own  endeavours.  Every  allowance  made  them 
■which  ren<fers  their  working  in  any  way  unnecelTary 
is  a  premium  to  idlenefs.  Employment,  not  alms, 
fliould  be  found  for  them.,  who  can  at  all  work  5 
and  it  is  well  obferved  that  one  fliilling  earned  by 
the  pauper,  renders  him  more  materiai  fervice  than 
ten  given  him. 

Want 


INTIMATIONS*  46J? 

Want  of  a  right  criterion  for  admitting  appli- 
cants, to  be  provided  for  at  the  public  expenfe,  is 
the  principal  caufe  of  a  great  number  of  them  being 
in  reafon,  in  humanity,  policy  and  in  juflice,  impro- 
perly received.  That  a  man  is  poor  is  not  alone  fuf- 
licient  caufe  for  the  fervants  of  the  public  providing 
for  him  at  the  coft  of  the  induflrious  and  fober  part 
of  the  community :  befides  his  being  in  a  ftate  of 
indigence,  he  mu\\.  be  incapable  of  working  fome- 
how^  fufficiently  to  fupport  himfelf  in  nccejfaries ; 
and  alfo  he  mufl  be  without  any  connexion  capable 
and  compellable  by  law  to  provide  for  him.  Indulg- 
ing a  whining  drone,  capable  of  procuring  common 
neceflaries  by  labour,  or  in  any  way  of  employment, 
is  encouraging  the  vices  above  enumerated ;  and  in 
eiFecl:  multiplies  paupers ^  vices  and  wretchednefs* 

SOLID  FEET  REDUCED  10  BUSHELS. 

The  foot  contains  1728  inches.  The  bufhel  in 
ttfe  2183  inches.  For  the  farmer's  eflimates  and 
grofs  purpofes,  it  will  be  near  enough  though  not 
quite  exafl,  to  reckon  for  flruck  meafure,  the  feet 
X.8 

How  many  bufliels  of  wheat  will  a  room  of 
1000  folid  feet  hold  ? 

_! 

800.0  800  bufliels : 

G  g  2  which 


468  NOTES    AKD 

■which  is  but  about  one  per  cent  fliort.     But  to  multi- 
ply by    .791,  is  very  exact. 
.791 

1000 


791  bufliels  exactly. 

A  cart  body  containing  40  feet 

.791  .8 

40  — 32*0  bufheis, 

ftruck  meafure. 

31.64c  or  31^^ 

M  AD  D  E  R. 

Madder  and  water-rotted  green  hemp  would  be 
agreeable,  as  well  as  profitable  crops,  for  retired  cits 
to  amufe  themfelves  with  cultivating  them  on  their 
fmall  retreats,  if  they  fhould  wiih  for  more  than  grafs 
to  employ  their  attentions.  Mr.  Arbuthnot  in 
England,  cultivates  the  amazing  quantity  of  80  acres 
in  madder,  on  his  farm  of  lefs  than  300  acres.  I  was 
much  pleafed  with  the  growth  and  produce  of  a  bed 
of  Mr.  Arbuthnot's  choicefl:  kind  of  madder  in  my 
garden  at  Wye  ;  and  wiihed  to  fpread  the  culture  of 
it  araongfl:  country  families,  who  appeared  the  moil 
concerned  in  httle  domeftic  manufacturing.  But 
alas  1  only  one  family  defired  to  have  of  it ;  and 
planted  forae  roots,  in  their  garden  :  and  at  this  time, 
1801,  it  is  preferved  in  a  garden  m  Talbot,  Mary- 
land. 

ASSES. 


INTIMATIONS.  469 

J  S  S  E  S, 

"  There  are  two  forts  in  Arabia  :  the  fmaller  or 
lazy  afs,  as  little  cfteemed  there  as  in  Europe  ;  and  a 
large  and  high  fpirited  breed,  which  are  greatly  va- 
lued, and  fold  at  a  full  price.  I  thought  them  fitter 
than  horfes  are."  2  Neibuhr's  Trav.  in  Arab.  304. 
This  finer  breed  is  alfo  fpoken  of  by  Sonnini,  eft.  35. 
Where  it  is  faid  that  the  greater  part  of  Egyptian 
affes  have  a  bright  gray  coat ;  and  fome  have  black 
and  others  reddifli  ftripes.  "  Eminent  he  fays,  in  her 
breeds  both  oi  horfes  2>.ndi  ajfes,  it  was  natural  for 
Egypt  to  boafl  fine  mules.  There  were  fome  of  thefe 
mules  at  Cairo,  far  fuperior,  in  price,  to  the  finefl 
horfes.  They  were  preferred  for  the  priests  and 
officers  of  the  revenue.  Their  pace  was  an  amble 
with  very  long  fteps,  to  which  they  were  brought 
by  faflening  each  fore  foot  to  the  hinder,  for  forae 
time.  The  handfomell  aifes  at  Cairo  come  from  up- 
per Egypt  and  Nubia  :  the  higher  up  the  Nile,  as  in 
Said,  the  beauty  is  the  greater.** 

The  common  breed  in  Egypt  and  Syria,  fays  ift 
Frank.  Hiil.  Egypt,  is  much  larger  than  what  are 
ever  feen  in  Britain  ;  and  another  yet  larger  breed 
is  preferved  for  the  faddle.  Almoft  all  the  common 
people  in  Egypt,  and  all  chriilians  and  flrangcrs 
whatever,  ride  on  afies. — The  bell:  fort  bear  a  high 
price. — They  are  tali,  handfomely  formed,  go  fwift- 

Iv, 


470  NOTES    AND 

1y,  in  an  eafy  ambling  pace  or  gallop,  and  are  re- 
markably fure  footed. 

G  A  7  E  S. 

The  bed  farm  gates  on  my  farms,  were  thus  con- 
ftrufted.  The  pods  were  fawed  fquare  off  at  the 
tops ;  and  were  but  4  feet  6  or  8  inches  high  from 
the  ground.  The  top  of  each  poft  inclined  4  inches 
inward  toward  each  other.  Their  diftance  on  the 
ground  was  9  feet,  of  courfe  the  diflance  at  top  was 
but  8  feet  4  inches :  and  this  inchnation  feemed  to 
influence  oxen  and  horfes,  in  carts,  to  take  more  to 
the  middle  of  the  paflage.  Gluts  of  wood,  large 
and  flout,  were  trunnelled  to  the  pofts  and  let  into 
the  ground  ;  which  ferved  as  fenders  and  braces. 
Thefe  fenders  alfo  tended  to  dire^i:  beads  to  the  mid- 
dle of  the  way. 

Gate  pods  ought  never  to  be  higher,  if  fo  high  as 
the  cart  wheels ;  that  plain  frames  holding  hay  or 
draw  may  pafs  over  the  pods. 

When  pods  are  thus  inclining  to  each  other  at  the 
tops,  the  gates  will  be  narrower,  by  8  inches,  at  top 
than  the  bottom  ;  and  of  courfe  lighter  than  if  of 
the  fquare  of  9  feet,  as  at  the  bottom  ;  and  as  they 
are  opened  they  rife  gradually  from  nothing  to  4 
inches ;  and  then  being  let  go,  gently  fall  to  their 
{latioQ  at  the  pod. 

My 


INTIMATIONS.  47I 

My  gates  had  been  widened  from  i o  to  ii  feet, 
by  an  honed  Hibernian  much  ray  friend,  that  the 
carts  might  be  fure  to  pafs  through  without  flriking 
the  pofls:  but  alas!  the  drivers  became  more  carelefs, 
and  the  cattle  were  left  to  their  own  bias.  Thefe 
pofls  1 1  feet  apart  were  more  cut  than  thofe  of  lo 
feet  as  the  lo  feet  were  more  than  the  9  feet. 
Thefe  lafl  were  indeed  fcarceiy  touched — the  fenders, 
&c.  preventing  it.     See  the  Plate. 

PLOWS. 

A  habitual  fondnefs  for  zc^bf els  has  greatly  lumber- 
ed and  depreciated  the  plows  of  England.     Ingeni- 
oufly  built  Norfolk  wheel  plows  have  been  imported 
into  America;  but  were  very  foon  laid  aCidc.     In 
oppofition  to  this  huge  complex  machine,  the  Englilh 
Rotheran  patent  plow  is  every  thing  :  a  fmiple,  chip, 
fwing-plow  with  a  clean  but  full  bow  mould  board. 
The  fliare  and  mould  board  are  fuperior  for  cutting 
and  turning  old  lay  or  grafsland  :  but  in  horfehoing 
it  is  inferior  to  the  common  bar  plows  of  Maryland 
and  Pennfylvania,  as  it  requires  more  ufe  of  the  plow- 
man's hands.     The  common  fault  in  the  American 
plows  is  moftly  in  the  mould  board.     Almofl  any 
mould  board,  would  be  preferable  to  the  bo/Io'w  fine 
fhapcd  board  which  the  fancy  of  fome  delight  in  ;  as 
injudicious  watermen  prefer  the  fliarp  entrance  and 
hollow  forepart  of  the  bottoms    of  failing  \cMs. 
The  plow  and  the  boat  have   to  force  their  way 

through 


472  NOTES    AND 

through  refiding  mediums.     P'or  gaining  this,  (harp- 
nefs  of  entrance  is  all  in  all  with  heedlefs  fancy. 

But  \vhat  avails  this  firft  clear  entrance,  if  oppo- 
fition  in  a  more  abrupt  and  direct  manner,  a  little 
further  aft  is  the  confequence  ?  View  the  holloiv 
mould  board  of  a  fharp  fair  looking  plow,  after  it  has 
been  worked  a  while,  or  whilfl  working,  what  a  glut 
of  fri(51ion  or  oppofition  it  has  experienced,  juft  in 
the  hollow,  and  how  it  labours  through  accum.ulated 
maffes  of  earth  unthrown  off  forward.  On  the 
other  hand  fee  the  mould  board  having  a  fair  eafy 
entrance  and  full  bow  in  a  gradual  fwell  as  it  rifes, 
how  it  turns  off  the  earth  and  rids  itfelf  or  avoids  ac- 
cumulated refinance,  juft  as  a  v/ell  formed  boat  does 
the  water  ;  and  this  wich  the  leafl  poffible  friction  or 
wearing^  of  the  mould  board  !  Iliuflration  :  defign- 
ing  to  fpend  a  winter  in  Philadelphia,  it  was  propof- 
ed  that  Mr.  Siiigletcn,  of  Talbot,  fliould  procure  to  be 
madj  a  double  plow  to  carry  two  furrows  at  a  time, 
and  that  I  fliould  have  one  made  at  Philadelphia, 
where,  in  Arch  Itreet,  was  an  ingenious  plowmaker. 
On  comparing  Mr.  Singleton's  with  mine,  the  weight 
of  mine  ready  for  v/crk  was  9610,  wood  and  all :  his 
43  to  45^^.  His  had  the  admired  fine  light  hollow 
mould  board  ;  mine  the  comparatively  heavy  looking 
full  bowed  mould  board.  My  plowmen,  were  horfe- 
hoing  maize,  when  I  ordered  the  two  beft  to  try  the 
double  plows  with  two  horfes  to  each.  Seeing  them 
at  work  for  fome  time,  they  were  ordered  to  change 

plows 


INTIMATIONS.  473 

plows.  After  working  thefe  awhile,  they  v.ere  aiked 
ieparateiy,  their  work  being  lixty  yards  apart,  which 
they  liked  beft.  It  was  curious  how  they  for  fomc 
time  looked  at  one  and  then  at  the  other  plow,  be- 
fore they  anfwered.  Their  conclullon,  refpeclively, 
was  that  the  large  plow  was  beft :  but  that  it  was 
heavy  in  fwinging  round.  It  did  not  appear  to  them 
or  to  me  that  the  horfes  exerted  more  power,  or 
were  more  worried,  in  carrying  the  large  than  the 
fmall  plow.  The  plowmen  were  obliged  conftantly 
to  prefs  on  the  (lilts  of  the  fmall  plow,  but  not  of  the 
large  one  :  and  whilft  we  were  talking  the  horfes 
went  oS  with  the  large  plow,  which  followed  them 
fteadily  and  without  deviation  as  if  the  plowman  had 
hold  of  the  ftilts  and  leading  line,  for  70  or  80  yards. 
Both  were  bar  fwing-plows,  for  we  fee  no  ufe  in 
wheels  to  plows :  but  the  Philadelphia  plow  had  a 
longer  tread.  The  Talbot  plow  was  fliorter  than 
common  which  with  the  boUounefs  of  the  mould 
board  deprived  it  of  fteadinefs  and  a  due  balance. 
Neither  Mr.  Singleton  or  myfelf  gave  any  dire£lion 
in  making  the  mould  boards. — Having  worked  mine 
one  feafon,  with  approbation  and  forae  admiration^ 
a  new  overfcer  would  improve  my  large  plow,  by 
cutting  away  ihej'zuc/l  of  the  mould  board  and  leave 
it  hollow,  that  it  might  pafs  eaUer  through  the 
ground.  It  was  done ;  and  the  plow  performed 
ver)-  indifferently  :  it  was  worked  thus  a  few  days 
and  laid  afide. 

A 


474        V  NOTES    AND 

A  promiCng  mould  board,  formed  on  mathematical 
principles,  is  lately  invented  by  Mr.  Jefferfon  ;  of 
which  an  account  is  given  in  the  fourth  volume  of 
American  Philofophical  Tranfaftions. 

TURNIPS. 

Mr.  Amos  fays,  "  on  poor  foils  lo  inches  are 
"  the  befl  dillance :  on  rich  foils  1 2  inches,  and 
*'  one  inch  the  befl  depth.  When  they  fland  at  a 
"  greater  diflance,  they  grow  too  large  for  keeping 
"  long.  The  fmaller  the  turnips  the  longer  they 
*  *'  refill  the  feverity  of  winter."  Too  early  fown  or 
planted  turnips  or  cabbages  do  not  fland  the  winter 
well :  they  are  over  ripe,  fpongy,  and  fufceptible 
of  frofl ;  having  lefs  of  the  'vis  infa  of  their  nature: 
their  vigor  is  fpent,  which  would  withfland  frofl. 
But  the  more  hardy  Swedifh  turnip,  called  ruta- 
baga, is  fown  in  April  or  May  for  giving  the  full 
grown  bulb  in  autumn. 

CARROTS. 

In  Mr.  Young's  Agriculture  of  Suffolk,  it  is  faid 
the  moft  approved  method  is  to  leave  a  barley  flub- 
ble,  which  has  followed  roots,  through  the  winter ; 
and  about  25  March  to  plow  by  a  double  fur roiv  as 
deep  as  may  be  ;  and  to  harrow  in  about  51b.  of  feed 
an  acre.  About  Whitfuntide  hoe  the  firfl  time ; 
and  thrice  in  all,  at  4  dollars  an  acre.  The  pro- 
duce on  good  land,  400  to  500  bulhels :  fometimes 

800 


i 


I 


INTIMATIONS.  475 

800.  On  poor  foils  as  low  as  2co  buflicls.  The 
carrots  are  commonly  left  in  the  ground  during  win- 
ter ;  and  taken  up  as  wanted  :  but  in  fome  winters 
they  are  frofted  and  rot.  The  feed  is  80  bulliels  a 
week  to  6  horfes,  with  chaff,  but  no  corn ;  and 
when  fo  fed  very  Httle  hay  is  eaten.*  Yet  it  is  beft 
to  take  the  carrots  up  in  autumn  and  pack  them  in 
a  barn.  There  they  acquire  the  ivlthercd  state  ;  in 
which  they  yield  most  nourifijment ;  and  late  feeding 
is  better  than  early  in  the  feafon  when  they  abound 
in  water. — Carrots  put  horfes  in  better  conditioa 
than  corn  iviih  hay  ;  and  they  leave  oats  for  carrots. 
Feed  with  them  from  Chriftmas  till  a  full  bite  of 
grafs  in  May.  One  bufhel  with  chaff",  is  enough 
for  a  horfc  a  day,  without  corn,  and  faves  half  the 
hay.  The  preparation  they  give  for  a  fubfequent 
crop,  fully  pays  for  them. 

Mr.  Amos  propofes  drilling  carrot  feeds.  Two 
pounds  of  feed,  deeped  in  rain  water  24  hours, 
then  laid  on  a  floor  till  they  f])rout,  with  three 
pecks  of  dry  faw  dull,  and  three  pecks  of  fine  dry 
mould,  all  well  mixed  together,  are  drilled,  one 
inch  deep  and  14  inches  between  the  rows.  Thus 
fteeped  and  fproiitcd  when  fown,  the  plants  begin 
to  appear  In  8  or  10  days.  After  drilling,  harrow 
once,   with  light  harrows ;    and  then  roll,  if  the 

ground 


*  Seven  pecks  of  roots  a  day  foeiii  more  than  enough.     It 
*  is  prefently  afterwards  CiiJ,  one  bufacl  with  cliafF  i?  enough. 


47^  K0T£3    AND 

ground  is  not  molll.  As  foon  as  the  carrots  are 
about  2  or  3  inches  above  ground,  fays  Mr.  Amos, 
they  fliould  be  harr(m;ed,  the  horfes  walking  in  the 
furrov.'s,  for  avoiding  to  tread  the  land  and  plants. 
In  two  or  three  weeks  after  harrowing  the  feccnd 
boing  is  given  to  clear  away  weeds,  and  the  plants 
are  thinned.  In  3  weeks  again  horfehoe  the  inter- 
vals, and  handhoe  the  rows,  as  well  as  finifh  the 
thinning.  Every  other  row  may  be  taken  up  :  the 
reft  covered  with  a  double  mould  board  plow,  and 
long  dung,  for  {landing  the  winter. 

MODES   OF  SOWING  WHEAT. 

1 .  Broadcast :  the  moft  fimple  and  moft  common. 

2.  Drilling,  i?i  co?itinued  rows  ;  like  garden  peas. 

3.  Drilli?ig  clusters  ;  in  rows. 

4.  Dibbling  :  dropping  feed  in  holes. 

Broadcast  can  fcarcely  be  hoed  at  all :  nor  is  it 
done  in  crops.     Harrowing  might  anfwer. 

Drilled,  like  garden  peas,  it  is  horfehoed  between 
the  rows ;  and  yields  more  than  broadcaft.  Drill- 
ed in  clusters,  it  is  horfehoed,  and  may  alfo  be  hand- 
hoed.  It  thus  yields  Hill  more  than  the  drilled  in  a 
continued  line.  ^m 

Dibbled,  with  a  number  of  feeds  in  each  hole,  is  ^JP 
probably  the  moH  productive:    dropping  not  lefs 

than  • 


INTIMATIONS.  477 

than  eight  or  ten  grains  of  wheat  to  each  clufler. 
Dibbling  is  tedious  and  expenlive,  where  labour  is 
fcarce,  though  it  is  moftly  the  work  of  women  and 
children :  but  the  effeft  is  very  great,  where  fome 
number  of  grains  of  wheat  is  dropt  in  each  hole. 

Mr.  A?nos  made  a  number  of  comparative  experi- 
ments, as  well  of  feeds  fowed  broadcast  as  drilled: 
the  refult  whereof  fliews,  that  drilled  and  horfehoed 
grain  is  fuperior  to  broadcast  harrowed  and  hand- 
hoed,  by  13  per  cent;  befides  cheapnefs  in  the 
work,  and  the  ground  left  in  better  condition. 
Drilled  turnips,  horfehoed)  fuperior  to  handhoed 
17  per  cent;  and  the  work  cheaper,  with  the 
ground  left  in  better  condition.  Drilled  potatoes, 
horfehoed,  fuperior  to  handhoed  1 6  per  cent ;  the 
work  cheaper  and  the  ground  left  better. 

In  the  above  experiments,  broadcaft  wheat  was 
handhoed,  which  it  fcarcely  ever  is  in  entire  fields 
of  it.  If,  in  the  experiment,  it  had  not  been  hand- 
hoed, the  fuperiority  of  the  drilled  wheat  might 
have  been  greater. 


^^mat 

^Hbeti 


From  experiments  made  by  me  at  Wye,  I  efli- 

mate  wheat  growing  in  clusters  to  be  15  per  cent 

etter  than  drilled  wheat  in  continued  rows,  both 

ping  hoed,  &c.  alike ;   which  would  be  -^  or  33 

cent  better  than  broadcafl  wheat  not  hoed: 

and 


47S  KOTES    AND 

and  the  grov/ing  crops  of  clustered  wheat,  are  the 
mod:  beautiful,  the  work  cafy,  and  the  produ^ls  the 
moil  abundant  and  perfect ! 

* 

ROTATIONS, 
iMr.  Amos' s  are : 


I. 

11. 

III. 

Oats 

Turnip:,  rot. 

Potatoes  12  L  dung 

Cole   feed,    li»iei 

dung  10  1. 

Barley 

with  i44bu{h. 

Barlev 

Clover 

Barley 

Clover 

Wheat 

Beans 

"Wheat 

Wheat 

The  lime  ought  to  enrich  greatly  :  for  colcfeed  is 
faid  to  be  very  impoverilhing,  and  beans  are  the 
only  mild  crop  in  No.  I. — So  the  dung  mull  be 
rich,  and  the  ground  previoufly  in  good  heart,  in 
No.  II.  as  10  loads  are  rather  a  fmall  allowance  to 
an  acre.  The  like  of  No.  Ill :  but  then  No.  II  and 
III  have  two  mild  crops,  rather  ameliorating,  to 
two  exhaufters. 

DRINKING    WATER. 

In  low  flat  countries,  even  in  fome  diilricts  o^^^fc 
higher  country,  the  water  of  fprings  and  wells  i^H 
bad  tailed  and  bad  in  quality.  Water  in  fprings^^B 
which  does  not  run  rapidly,  but  is  fluggiih  to  being 

nearly 


INTIMATIONS.  479 

nearly  ftagnant,  abounds  in  putrid  remains  of  vege- 
tables and  infefts.  What  are  deemed  fprings  of 
good,  clear,  fweet  water,  in  thefe  countries,  are 
ftill  but  comparatively  fo.  They  want  the  brilliancy 
and  the  fpirit  of  rock  water,  fuch  as  the  highlands 
afford. 

If  filtering  the  water  ufed  for  drink  was  praftifed, 
it  would  render  what  is  fo  inferior  at  leaft  bright 
and  palatable  ;  and  probably  perfeftly  wholefome  ; 
efpecially  if  charcoal  fliould  be  applied  to  it  as  be- 
low. Of  this  and  filtering,  it  may  be  obferved 
that, 

Parlfying  water  may  be  performed  in  either  of 
the  following  modes.     According  to  Dpftor  Lind, 
a  fmall  cafk  open  at  both  ends,  is  placed  within  a 
larger  calk  wanting  a  head.     Clean  fand  and  gravel 
is  put  into  both,  fo  that  the  level  of  the  fand  with- 
in the  inner  calk  (room  being  left  to  pour  in  water) 
be  higher  than  the  bed  of  fand  in  the  intermediate 
fpace  betwixt  the  two  calks.     A  cock  is  fixed  in 
the  outer  calk,  above  the  fand,  at  a  level  fomewhat 
lov^er  than  the  furface  of  the  materials  in  the  inner 
calk.      The  water  poured  in  at  top  of  the  inner 
,  calk,  finks  through  the  mafs  of  fand ;  and  pafiing 
alfo  through  that  in  the  outer  cafk,  afcends  and  is 
difcharged  at  the  cock,  when  wanted.     As  the  fur- 
face  of  the  fand  in  the  inner  caHc  becomes  loaded 

with 


480  NOTES    AND 

with  impurities,    remove  it,   and  add  freili  clean 
fand. 

According  to  Mr.  Lowitz,  three  half  ounces  af 
charcoal  powder,  and  twenty-four  drops  of  oil  of 
vitriol  fuffice  to  purify  three  and  an  half  pints  of 
corrupted  water,  without  giving  it  acidity.  If  the 
Titriol  is  omitted,  it  requires  thrice  the  quantity  of 
charcoal  or  nine  half  ounces.  The  vitriol  is  firfl 
mixed  with  the  water  :  then  the  coal.  Spring  wa- 
ter having  an  unpleafant  hepatic  flavour,  is  improv- 
ed by  filtering  it  through  a  bag  half  full  of  charcoal 
■pffivdcr.  Dry  this  charcoal,  and  powder  it  over 
again  ;  it  then  will  anfwer  a  fccond  time :  and  if 
made  red  hot  in  a  chfe  vefTcI,  the  coal  will  immedi- 
ately recover  its  power  of  purifying,  after  having 
before  loil  it  by  ufe.  Mr.  Hufeland  fays,  reduce 
burnt  charcoal  to  a  fine  powder :  mix  a  fpoonful  of 
it  in  a  pint  of  flagnant,  bad,  or  putrid  water :  flir 
it  well  and  let  it  ftand  a  few  minutes :  then  run  it 
ilowly  through  filtering  paper.  The  fame  powder 
will  anfwer  again.  To  travellers  it  is  recommended 
that  they  dry  the  powder  and  keep  it  corked  clofe 
up  in  a  vial  \  and  for  families  in  bottles. 

The  third  method  of  procuring  pure  and  cool  wa- 
ter is  this  :  Make  a  cafe  for  containing  a  number  of 
tubes  placed  vertically  along  fide  of  each  other, 
"with  proper  communications  from  one  to  another. 

The 


X 


INTIMATIONS.  481 

The  cafe  will  be  compact,  and  may  fland  on  a  chim- 
ney-hearth or  in  a  paiTage.  The  water  is  filtered 
through  clean  fand  contained  in  the  tubes.  Eight 
tubes,  one  foot  high,  would  filter  through  fevea 
feet  of  fand  in  extent.  The  tubes  may  be  four 
inches  fquare.  In  the  middle  of  the  eight  tubes, 
in  the  box,  is  a  fpace  for  ice.  This  box  would  not 
exceed  18  inches  fquare  area,  and  14  inches  deep: 
and  a  box  lefs  than  two  feet  area,  would  alfo  allow 
room  for  bottles  of  liquor  to  be  kept  cool  with  the 
water  and  ice.  The  tubes  may  be  of  wood,  or 
(fweeter)  tin ;  and  if  1 8  inches  deep,  would  con- 
tain a  third  more  of  fand  and  water  :  that  is,  above 
nine  feet  in  extent.  The  firft  tube  receives  a  head 
of  water  above  the  range  of  the  other  tubes,  which 
is  to  be  occafionally  renewed  with  water. 

Rain  water  is  faved  in  cifterns  under  ground  in 
many  places  of  Europe,  efpecially  in  Holland,  Spain, 
Italy  and  Sicily  ;  and  according  to  travellers,  there 
is  no  fweeter  or  purer  water.  It  is  efteemed  accord- 
ing to  its  age,  which  gives  it  its  remarkable  purity. 
I  think  it  is  Mr.  Stolberg  who  fays  rain  water  three 
years  old  was  recommended  to  him,  and  he  found 
it  very  excellent.  In  Malta  every  inhaibitant  is  ob- 
liged to  have  a  ciftern  for  water  in  his  houfe ;  and 
there  are  icatcrhouscs  cut  in  the  rocks,  vihich  con- 
tain water  fufficient  for  three  years ;  and  it  is  kept 
very  good,  and  ufed  at  all  times.  Month.  Mag. 
H  h  or 


482  NOTES    AND 

or  Britllli  Rcgifler,  April,  1799.  See  before  page 
417,  of  Houfe  Cifterns.  Water  faved  in  ciilems 
fliould  be  fo  deep  under  ground  as  to  be  below  the 
warmth  that  will  produce  fermentation ;  therefore 
prefer  the  double  cube,  and  prevent  accefs  of  the 
external  air  to  the  water. 

FIRST    IMPRESSIONS. 

Science  is  but  little  regarded  by  hufbandmen.  Yet 
an  education  which  tends  to  promote  the  focial  vir- 
tues and  manners^  is  invaluable  in  all  flations  of  life. 
But  tbe  inrtues  ivith  happy  7nanncrs,  can  only  be 
aiTured  to  the  riling  generation  through  the  very 
earliefl:  attentions  to  children  by  the  pious  good  77/0- 
thcr  and  nurfe ;  beginning  with  the  firfl:  lifp :  for 
children  rcafon  and  underhand,  though  not  flrong- 
ly,  yet  long  before  they  can  articulate. 

Neverthelefs,  how  neglecled  and  how  little  under- 
flood  is  education,  as  well  in  the  town  as  the  country. 
Parents  aft  as  if  all  that  is  necelTaiy  is  to  fend  chil- 
dren to  fchool :  but  how  mifplaced  is  book  learning 
without  firft  irapreffing  them  at  home  with  good  in- 
tentions, good  principles  ;  and  leading  them  to  a  de- 
fire  of  improving  as  well  their  manners  as  their 
minds* 

Attentions 

*  Certain  Indians  were  afked  why  they  took  their  boys  io 
foonfrom  fchool  amongft  the  white  people  ?  They  anfwerrd, — 
"  Becaufe  Indians  vho  get  fchool  karningf  prove  to  be  the 


INTIMATIONS.  483 

Attentions  are  mifapplied  in  the  education  of  chil- 
dren which  early  burthen  their  memories  with  religi- 
gious  productions  of  inventive  men.  Religion,  mo- 
rals and  manners  are  contained  in  the  Gofpel  of 
Jefus  Chrift  ;  which  confifts  of  a  few  plain  principles 
that  are  invaluable !  but  thefe  are  nearly  loft  in  a 
cloud  of  forced  and  unnatural  expofition  and  fantafy. 
To  imprefs  the  minds  of  children  with  the  general 
belief  of  their  fubordination  to  a  Supreme  Being  who 
hperfed  goodnefs,  without  attempting  thus  early  to 
explain  more  of  the  Deity,  is  it  not  for  children, 
enough  of  religious  concerns  ? 

"  Araongftthe  ancient  Romans, />.7rt/z/x  anxioufly 
"  attended  to  the  education  of  their  children;  begin- 
"ningit/row  their  birth.  They  committed  them 
"  to  the  care  of  fome  well  known  prudent  matron  of 
"  character  (or  the  mother  performed  it)  whofe  bu- 
"  finefs  it  was  to  form  ihtir  Jirst  habits  of  afting  and 
'"'  fpeaking  ;  to  "jsa'ch  their  growing  palHons,  and  d'/- 
*••  reel  them  to  the  proper  objeifts  ;  to  fuperintend 
"  their  fports,  and  fuffer  nothing  indecent  or  impro- 
H  h  2  "  per 

rrcatcfl  rog-ues  in  our  nation."  The  boys  had  never  been 
prepared  or  impreffed  with  g»od  principlis  in  their  tender  in- 
tlincy.  So  of  certain  clafles  of  \vhite  people. — They  obtain 
fchool  education,  and  turn  out  brimful  of  the  dogmas  of  men, 
without  having  been  ever  led  to  attend  to  and  admire  the  mo- 
rality of  the  Gofi>el,  or  any  thing  like  xor-l  -ind  virtuous 
coT>d\i3,  or  amiable  manr.sr5. 


4^4  NOTES    AND 

"  per  to  come  from  them :  that  the  mind  preferved 
"  in  its  inncceiice,  cor  depraved  by  a  tafte  of  delufive 
"  pleafure,  might  he  free  to  purfue  things  laudable, 
"  and  apply  its  whole  ftrength  to  the  profefhon  in 
"  which  it  is  difpofed  to  excel.  No  time  of  im- 
"  provement  was  lofl ;  arid  literary  inst ruction  kept 
"  pace  '■jL'ith  the  moral.  They  were  accuftomed  to 
"  hear  at  home  the  purest  language  and  fentiment, 
"  from  their  nurfcs,  their  fathers,  and  their  mothers, 
"  accompanied  with  attentions,  gentle  manners  and 
"  addrefs  towards  all  their  fellow  creatures." 

It  was  the  principal  ftudy  of  the  Egyptians  in  the 
education  of  their  childi-en  to  implant  in  them  the 
virtues  of  industry,  economy,  gratitude,  and  truth  : 
upon  thefe  they  confidered  the  general  happinefs  of 
their  country  to  depend  :  to  this  fource  was  traced 
all  that  was  excellent  in  their  la\vs,  their  go-vernment 
or  their  morals,  and  that  tended  to  propagate  and 
improve  ihefciefices.     Frank.  Eg.  354. 

RJW   LIME-STOJSE   AND    GTPSUM 
MANURES, 

Mr.  Chancellor  Livingston  of  New- York,  has 
made  a  number  of  valuable  experiments,  which  are 
publiflied  by  the  agricultural  fociety  there,  and  from 
which  the  following  are  felefted.  In  Auguft  1790, 
on  a  rood  of  ilia  clay  ground  lying  very  fiat,  he  fpread 

one 


INTIMATIONS.  485 

one  bufliel  of  pulverifed  limestone.     In  the  next  fum- 
mer,  the  efFecfls  of  it  were  difcernibie  to  an  inch,  both 
in  the  verdure  and  luxuriancy  of  the  grafs.     The 
difference  between  it  and  the  parts  adjoining  were 
in  its  favour,  as  he  judged  on  counting  the  cocks,  as 
feven  to  four :   from  whence  he  infers  that,  on  clay 
ground,  eight  bufhels  of  pulverifed  h'meftone  are  at 
leafl:  equal  to  Hx  of  gypfura.     This  is  very  import- 
ant tellimony.     Many  phices  are  fcarce  of  fuel  for 
burning  limeflone  :  and  if  ever  fo  plenty,  hufband- 
men  can  find  means  for  pulverifmg  eight  bufliels  of 
the  ftone,  at  a  cheaper  and  more  advantageous  rate 
than  they  can  break  up  and  reduce  100  bufliels  of 
flonc,  cut  the  wood,   cart   in  the  (tone  and  wood, 
charge  the  kiln,  and  attend  feveral  days  and  nights 
to  feed  it;  befides  the  difference  of  carrying  it  out 
and  flrewing  it  on  the  fields.*     At  the  fame  time 
the  Chancellor  tried  the  effe*5ts  of  pulverifed  limestone 
at  the  rate  often  bufliels  to  the  acre  on  ^fandy  loam  ; 
and  this  acquired  the  fame  verdue  as  the  part  that  had 
been  dreffed  with  gypfum. — On  the  20  May  1791, 
the  Chancellor  viewed  a  piece  ofy/j.v,  fown  very  in- 
judicioufly  by  a  poor  tenant,  on  a  dry  fandy  declivity. 
It  looked  extremely  fickly,  and  the  tenant  thought 
of  plowing  it  up  :  but  the  Chancellor  prefcribed  for 
it,  three  bufliels  of  gypfum  to  be  applied   the  next 
m.orning  whilfl:  the  dew  fliould  be  yet  on  the  ground. 

It 

*  1  And.  Hufb,  276,  fpeaks  of  a  mill  for  beating  Um,Ji'.r.c 
into  a  powder  for  manure  ;  according  to  M.  Duhamel. 


486  NOTES    AND 

It  was  accordingly  applied,  and  the  benevolent 
Chancellor  expreffes  his  fatisfaction  in  having  fecn 
the  tenant  gather  more  Jiax  from  this  half  acre,  in 
an  uncommon  dry  fiimmer,  than  any  acre  in  the 
neighbourhood  afforded.  In  many  cafes  of  experi- 
ence, the  principle  I  hold  of  gypfum  fliewing  its  ex- 
traordinary power  in  promoting  vegetation  moftly  in 
dry  feafons,  is  corroborated :  for  it  is  principally  in 
dry  feafons  and  iituations  that  gypfum  ftiews  its  im- 
portance in  pufliing  vegetation  forward ;  undoubtedly 
by  its  fuperior  virtue  in  inviting  or  attracting  partis 
cles  of  moifture,  to  itfelf  and  plants  near  it. 

Mr.  Chancellor  Livingfton  from  his  eighteen  ex- 
periments on  gypfum,  raw  limeftone ;  and  oyfter- 
fbells,  pulverifed  ;  draws  the  following  inferences  : 

1.  ThTit.  gypfiwi  in  fmall  quantities  has  no  vifible 
effect,  on  nvhcat  or  rye. 

1.  That  it  is  uniformly  beneficial  to  Indian  corn  ; 
linlefs  it  be  in  very  rich  or  very  wet  foils.* 

3.  That  it  is  beneficial  to  fax  on  dry  poor  fandy 
land. 

4.  That 

*  Rich  or  'u.-et  foils,  vrznX.  not  the  aid  of  gypfum  ;  the  pro- 
perty -n-hereof  is  to  attract  motfiure,  vrhere  foil  is  poor  or  dry. 
3ee  p.  348,  349. 


INTIMATIONS.  487 

4.  That  it  is  peculiarly  adapted  to  the  growth  of 
clover  in  all  dry  foils,  or  even  in  wet  foils  in  a  dry 
feafon. 

5.  That  limestone  pulverifed,  has  llmilar  etTcfls  with 
gypfum  :  but  whether  it  is  better  adapted  to  wet  foils, 
he  could  not  as  yet  determine. 

6.  Another  fa£l,  he  fays,  feems  to  be  very  well 
eftabliflied,  though  he  could  fay  nothing  of  it  from 
his  own  experience,  that  the  efFecls  of  gypfum  as  a 
manure  are  hardly  perceivable  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
fea. 

RUS  T    OF    WHEAT. 

"  Mr.  Ifaac  Young,  of  Georgia,  mixed  rye 
amongfl:  his  feed  wheat,  and  thus  efcaped  the  blafl:  of 
his  wheat.  It  was  repeatedly  tried,  till  he  was  con- 
vinced of  its  efficacy  :  and  then  he  fowed  five  acres 
with  wheat,  furrounded  'ujith  a  list  of  2^  feet  breadth 
of  rye  :  and  this  alfo  fucceeded  ;  and  being  repeated, 
is  found  a  certain  fecurity  to  the  wheat.*'  Rom, 
Florida  118. 

I  have  alfo  heard  an  Englifli  farmer  fay  that  rye 
fown  mixt  with  wheat  will  prevent  the  wheat  from 
being  blighted,  in  England. 

A  Stuffing 


488  NOTES    AND  ' 

A  Stiifingfor  Leather,  in  Shoes  and  Boots. 

The  New-England  fifhcrmen  find  great  benefit 
from  ferving  their  boots  with  the  following  compofi- 
tion  ;  which  excludes  water,  and  preferves  boots  and 
fhoes.  The  fame  advantages  are  applicable  to  the 
fhoes  of  hufbandmen.  My  fhoes  have  been  ferved 
with  it  conftantly  for  feven  years  ;  and  in  no  inftance 
has  it  let  in  any  water  or  dampnefs  through  the 
leather  :  nor  does  it  harden  or  ftiifen  the  thinned  calf 
leather.  One  pint  of  boiled  Unfeedoil ;  half  a  pound 
of  mutton  fiiet ;  fix  ounces  clean  bees-iiax ;  four 
ounces  rofin :  melt  and  mix  well  over  a  flow  fire. 
Shoes  or  boots  when  quite  new  and  clean,  are  a  lit- 
tle warmed  ;  and  then  are  ferved  with  the  ftufEng 
alfo  warmed,  but  fo  as  not  to  fcald,  as  much  as  the 
outfide  of  the  leather,  upper  and  foal,  can  receive  ; 
and  efpecially  the  feams  and  joining  of  the  foal  and 
upper  leather  are  to  be  well  fluffed  j  taking  care  the 
tack-holes  are  plugged  up  ;  and  that  all  is  perfectly 
dry.  The  leather  will  want  no  renewal  of  the  ftuff- 
ing  :  at  leail  my  flioes  never  have.  1  ufe  a  painter's 
brufh  for  laying  on  the  ftuff.  This  fluffing  fills  the 
pores  of  the  leather  and  excludes  water,  as  the  fap 
of  green  wood  when  infpiffatcd  by  fire  fills  the  pores 
of  wood  and  excludes  water. 

BRAMBLE 


INTIMATIONS.  489 

BRAMBLE    FENCES, 

The  Intelligent  Do^lor  Anderfon,  of  Scotland,  gives 
an  intcrefling  account  of  the  bramble  ;  and  recom- 
mends it  as  far  preferable  to  the  fweet  briar  in  a 
fence. 

Its  character  is,  that  it  refembles  the  rafpberry  in 
the  manner  of  its  growth  ;  and  they  differ  from  all 
other  plants.  But  the  bramble  has  a  peculiarity,  dif- 
fering from  the  rafpberry  in  this :  it  alone  poflefTes 
the  faculty  to  ftrike  out  roots  at  the  point  of  each 
flioot  of  a  year's  growth  ;  and  no  other  part  of  the 
flem  can  be  brought  to  flrike  root,  even  if  laid  in  the 
ground.  So  that  to  prevent  brambles  from  rambling 
and  fouling  the  ground,  nothing  more  is  neceflary 
than  to  walk  round  the  bramble  fence,  and  whip  off 
the  ends  which  dangle  towards  the  ground.  He  re- 
commends every  August  for  this  work.  It  will  want 
no  other  clipping,  fliortening,  or  dreillng. 

Like  the  rafpberry,  the  bramble  yearly  fends  out 
many  (lioots  from  the  bottom  (the  ground),  which 
puih  out  to  the  whole  length  they  ever  attain,  during 
the  firfl  year.  Thefe  flioots,  in  this  feafon,  confift: 
of  fingle  stems  which  never  branch,  unlefs  where  by 
accident  they  have  been  cut  over,  when  they  be- 
come forked.  In  the  next  feafon  thefe  stems  fet  out 
many   fruit-bearing   branches,   along  their   whole 

length, 


490  NOTES    AND 

length,  which  flower  and  perfeft  their  feeds,  while 
a  new  fet  of  ste?ns  are  pufhing  from  the  bottom  to 
become  feed-bearers  next  feafon.  After  perfecting 
their  feeds  the  luhole  stem  that  bore  them,  with  all 
its  branches  dies.  This  is  the  unvarying  progref- 
fion  obferved  in  the  growth  of  the  bramble  plant  :  io 
that  a  hedge  of  it,  will  at  all  times  contain  three  dis- 
tinct kinds  of /hoots,  intermixed  with  and  croiFmg  each 
other  in  all  directions  :  i.  xht  dead  Jhoots  ;  i.  the 
fruit  fhoots ;  3.  the  roots  pujhing  forward  in  their 
lengthy  growth.  They  are  all  covered  with  ftrong 
fpines,  and  form  an  impenetrable  matting,  when 
confined  within  proper  bounds.  Mr.  Le  Blanc,  in 
the  2d  Annal,  fays  it  is  worthy  of  the  attention  of  all 
who  wifli  to  raife  live  hedges  in  a  poor  fandy  foil, 
in  the  (horteft  time,  and  at  the  lead  expence,  to  cul- 
tivate the  bra?nble.  In  a  field  of  blowing  fand,  in 
which  flieep  were  kept,  on  one  fide  of  a  road  the 
bank  was  planted  with  brambles  mixed  with  white 
thorn,  and  a  dead  hedge  placed  on  the  top.  The 
bramble  not  only  defends  the  young  quick  from 
flieep,  but  alfo  by  twifling  through  the  dead  hedge, 
flrengthens  it  from  being  broken  down.  On  the 
other  fide  of  the  road,  the  bank  was  at  the  fame  time 
planted  with  white  thorn,  only.  The  dead  hedge 
to  it,  has  been  feveral  times  renewed,  and  there  is 
no  probability  that  this  white  thorn,  will  ever  be- 
come a  fence.     What  a  valuable  corroboration  this 

is 


INTIMATIONS.  49' 

is  of  Doa.  Anderfon's  propofed  bramble  fence,  on 
light  poor  land  !  See  his  3d  volume  of  Effays. 

A  good  fence  of  bank  and  bramble  may  be  reared 
in  moil  fituations,  fays  Mr.  Anderlbn,  at  id.  to  3^. 
fteriing  a  yard  (3  to  5  cents ;)  for  a  facing  is  re- 
quired only  on  one  fide. 

Siuect  briar  he  obferves  is  not  equal  to  the  bram- 
ble :  for  unlefs  it  be  often  cut  over  by  the  roots,  it 
gets  naked  below,  rugged  and  unfightly,  if  without 
fupport  from  other  plants ;  and  if  other  plants  be  near 
ihem,  they  grow  poorly.  In  expofed  fituations  too 
the  wind  gets  hold  of  the  tops  and  by  aaing  on  them 
as  a  lever,  is  apt  to  pull  down  the  bank. 

The  bratnbk  is  liable  to  none  ofthefe  objecTions; 
and  it  feems  to  be,  he  adds,  the  ver)'  plant  fitted  by 
nature  for  forming  that  clofe,  netted  prickly  coping, 
alike  wanted  to  prevent  animals  from  tearing  down 
the  bank,  and  to  preferve  it  from  the  levelling  power 
of  the  wind,  and  other  external  injuries.  The  bram- 
ble efpecially  excels  other  plants  on  upland  thin 
ground. 

Bramble  fences,  which  are  equally  appliq^ble  in  foft 
good  foils  and  thofe  that  are  harder  in  rocky  and 
hilly  countries,  may  be  thus  conflrufted  : 


A 


492  NOTES    AND 

A  bank  is  railed  on  the  inner  fide  of  a  ditch, 
"where  it  can  be  dug  and  faced  with  ftones,  of  a  good 
binding  quality  ;  or  if  the  floncs  are  fmall  or  roundifli, 
or  fewer  than  wanted,  they  may  be  laid  in  alternate 
rows  with yi;^/.  Where  no  floaes  are  to  be  had,  the 
facing  may  be  entirely  of  fod.  The  backing  to  be 
made  of  earth,  dug  either  from  the  ditch,  if  on  a  le- 
vel, or  fcraped  from  without,  if  upon  a  Hope  ;  or  ta- 
ken from  behind  where  it  is  eafiell  had  :  fo  as  to  raife 
the  laall  with  its  ditch  four  to  five  feet  high.  Upon 
the  top  of  this  bank  and  about  one  foot  backwards 
from  its  edge,  plant  a  row  of  brajnble  plants,  at  about 
(ix  inches  apart  all  around.  '  If  taken  from  the  com- 
mons be  fare  they  are  all  young  plants  nearly  grown 
and  well  rooted  :  for  it  is  of  the  utmofl  confequence 
that  the  hedge  {hould  come  forward  equally  in  all  its 
parts ;  fo  as  not  to  leave  a  fingle  gap  in  any  place. 
To  infure  this,  plants  reared  from  feeds  are  befl:  and 
the  cheapefl.  The  plants  are  to  be  examined  the 
first feapin  cfter planting  ;  and  fupplied  with  what  are 
wanting :  without  which  attention,  the  hedge  can 
never  afterwards  be  made  equal  Rud  uniform  through- 
out. I  am  induced,  fays  Mr.  Anderfon,  to  take  no- 
tice of  the  circumftance  thus  poiiiicdly  from  obferving 
a  culpable  carelefTnefs  refpefting  it,  which  is  the  chief 
canfe  of  the  raggednefs  in  hedges  that  every  where 
prevails.  If  a  dead  fence  of  thorns  and  brufliwood 
be  placed  on  the  top  of  the  fence  at  the  time  when 
the  brambles  are  planted,  tbefe  live  plants  may  be 

intermixed 


INTIMATIONS.  493 

intermixed  with  the  dead  fence,  to  advantage  rather 
than  detriment.  Care  is  to  be  taken  of  flieep,  that 
they  have  not  accefs  to  injure  the  bank. 

If  the  hedge  has  been  planted  with  care,  it  will 
come  forward  with  great  luxuriance,  in  fhoots  which 
rifing  upwards  and  fpreading  out  on  both  fides  form 
a  clofe  matted  coping  cffpring  plants  all  over,  which 
will  effeftually  prevent  intrufion  of  men  or  animals. 

The  people  of  Kent, county,  Maryland,  who  made 
naked  bank  fences,  mentioned  in  page  196,  wanted 
only  to  know  the  above  ufes  of  bramble  plants  for 
them  to  have  completed  their  dcfign.  They  made 
banks,  and  fodded  them  very  perfeftly.  Brambles 
upon  thefe  banks  would  have  properly  fliaded  the 
banks  and  prefcrved  the  grafs,  and  with  dead  wood 
for  the  firfl  feafon  or  two  among  the  brambles  would 
have  kept  oiF  beads  from  cutting  down  the  fods,  and 
always  afterwards. 

IMPROVEMENT  OF  THE   MIND    FOR 
RURAL  LIFE. 

"  Of  fcientifical  purfuits,  the  mod:  liberal,  the  mod 
honorable,  the  happied,  and  what  probably  will  be 
the  mod  fuccefsful  employment  for  a  man  in  eafy  cir- 
cumdances,  (particularly  in  country  life,')  is  the  study 
of  nature,  including  natural  hidory  and  natural  phi- 
lofophy  J  and  therefore  to  this  important  objetft  a 

principal 


494  NOTES    AND 

principal  attention  Ihould  be  given  in  educating 
youth  who  have  the  means  of  applying  to  thefe  in- 
ftructive  and  comfortable  purfuits,  ^?s•hen  it  may  be 
without  interfering  with  the  means  neceilar}'  to  his 
fupport.  Every  man  finds  vacant  moments  from  his 
ordinary  bufinefs,  which  cannot  be  better  filled  than 
by  fuch  attentions  as  le2.dto  the  improvement  of  his 
underflanding  and  elevate  his  mind  to  admire,  more 
and  more,  the  aftonifliing  works  of  the  Creator  j  and 
thus  is  real  religion  befriended. 

"  All  the  arti^  from  whence  is  derived  all  that 
tends  to  the  fecurity  and  comfort  of  mankind,  de- 
pend upon  the  knowledge  of  the  powers  of  nature 
wherewith  we  become  converfant ;  and  the  only 
pofUble  way  of  afluring  and  increafing  the  conveni- 
encies  and  comforts  of  life,  of  guarding  againfl  in- 
conveniencies  and  vexations,  to  which  all  are  fubjecl, 
and  of  enlarging  the  powers  of  man,  is  through  a  fur- 
ther acquaintance  with  the  powers  of  nature."' — From 
Doctor  Priestly y  a  very  little  altered.  Some  inftruc- 
tion  in  geometry  and  mechanics  would  alfo  be  advan- 
tageous in  country  life. 

Farmers  who  do  not  lay  the  hand  to  the  plow, 
often  want  they  know  not  what :  time  hangs  heavy 
on  them  :  They  feel  diffatisfied,  reftlefs :  a  void  fur- 
rounds  them.  Employment  of  any  fort  would  gwc 
them  relief.  But  they  mount  the  horfe,  and  leave 
xhsiT  family  and  the  inviting  calls  of  an  improvable 

farm. 


INTIMATIONS.  495 

form,  to  feek  amufement  in  riding  to  and  fro  ;  fome- 
tiraes  unwarily  popping  into  taverns.     But,  though 
time  is  thus  palTed  away,  they  gain  no  folid  or  per- 
manent fatisfaftion,  much  lefs  any  improvement  of 
the  mind  :  and  to  be  fure  the  farm  is  not  improved  j 
nor  its  work  well  done.     Were  thcfe  mailers  of 
farms  fortunately  led  by  their  parents  to  the  study  of 
nature,  they  would  never  vi^ant  foothing  and  nouriili- 
ing  food  to  the  mind  ;  and  from  their  being  employ- 
ed in  inquiries  concerning  the  wonderful  works  of 
the  Supreme-Good,  God  alone  ii'i/e,  a  found  and  rati- 
onal piety  would  be  increafed  and  confirmed  in  them. 
The  book  of  nature  far  furpalTes  books  of  clumfy 
art ;  whilfl  the  wordy  works  of  mifled  and  miilead- 
ing  inftruftors  convey  no  profitable  knowledge,  and 
are  infignificant  to  common  fenfe,  the  underftanding 
given  us  by  God,  and  to  good  minds  wilhing  to  be 
impreifed  with  the  knowledge  of  plain  truths,  and 
improved  in  whatever  is  amiable  and  promotive  of 
good.     The  comforts  held  out  by  the  gofpel  of 
Christ,  confirm  the  hope  derived  from  contemplations 
on  nature  :  and  there  is  a  perfeft  agreement  between 
the  pure  intelligible  principles  of  the  go/pel,  and  the 
laws  of  nature  ;  but  which  folly  would  fet  at  vari- 
ance.    "  The  fublime  inflinft  of  our  minds,  our  fouls, 
"  may  be  mifled  ;   but  can  never  be  annihilated  by 
"  the  doctrines  of  a  falfe  philofophy  or  the  unintclJi- 
"  gible  jargon  of  trained  teachers;  a  .confcioufncfs 
"  whereof  impels  us  to  admire  and  love  ivifdom  and 

generojiiy 


49^  K0TE5    AND 

*•  gctierofity  of  conducl^  as  we  do  grandeur  and  lym- 
"  metry  in  nature." 

"  Can  the  fublime  ideas  of  a  divine  Creator, 
"  whofe  providence  watches  over  the  world  and  the 
"  immortality  of  the  foul,  that  confolatory  hope  of 
*'  perfecuted  virtue,  be  nothing  more  than  amiable 
"  and  fplcndid  chimeras  ?  But  in  how  much  obfcu- 
*'  rity  are  thcfe  difficult  problems  involved !  What 
"  accumulated  objections  arife,  when  we  with  to  exa- 
"  mine  them  with  mathematical  rigour !  No ;  it  is 
"  not  given  to  the  human  mind  to  behold  thefe 
"  truths  in  the  full  day  cf  perfect  evidence :  But 
"  why  Ihould  the  man  of  fenCbility  repine  at  not  be^ 
"  ing  able  to  demondrate  what  he  feels  to  be  true  /" 

"  In  the  filence  of  the  clofet  and  the  drynefs  of 
"  difcuillon,  lean  agree  with  extravagant  or  abfurd 
''  teachers,  as  to  the  infolubility  of  certain  queftions  : 
"  but,  when  in  the  country  and  contemplating  na- 
"  lure^  the  foul  full  of  emotion,  foars  aloft  to  the 
"  -j'ivifywg priiidple  that  animates  it,  to  the  Almighty 
'•  itiiiilecl  that  pervades  it,  and  to  the  goodnefs  that 
"  renders  the  fame  delightful  and  juft  to  my  fenfes 
*•  derived  from  the  Creator  ;  enjoying  the  truths  de- 
"  monilratcd  to  me,  and  giving  way  to  feelings  fo 
"  imprefftve  andfatisfaclory,  I  am  content  to  remain 
"  ignorant  of  what  cannot  be  known,  and  give  my- 
*'  felf  no  didurbance  about  the  opinions  of  others. 

But 


INTIMATIONS.  49^ 

"  But  I  conform  to  ihc  public  ivor/hip,  becaufe  my 
"  fituaiion  makes  it  my  duty  (o  to  do."     Mdm,  RoL 

ORCHARDS. 

It  feeras,  in  England  as  in  America,  orchards 
have  been  coniiderably  ncgledled  ;  and  the  know- 
ledge of  proper  modes  of  managing  them  was  not 
generally  well  known  in  the  moment  when  a  well- 
timed  and  generous  interference  of  a  Mr,  Bucknall, 
eftefled  fuch  a  current  in  favour  of  them,  as  that 
they  are  again  becoming  a  great  confideration  in 
England.  Befides  Mr.  Bucknall's  perfonal  attention: 
to  his  own,  his  neighbours,  and  friends  orchards, 
and  very  actively  diffufing  a  knowledge  of  the  new 
principles  in  converfations,  he  addreifed  the  London 
fociety  for  the  encouragement  of  arts,  laid  before 
them  his  principles  of  orcharding,  as  he  calls  it, 
obtained  firfl  their  filver  medal,  and  on  a  further 
communication  their  gold  medal  with  their  thanks. 
The  certificates  accompanying  his  communications 
are  very  ftrong  in  their  favour ;  and  his  practice  is 
warmly  adopted,  and  in  a  courfe  of  being  generally 
purfued  by  the  EngliHi  farmers.  An  experienced 
and  intelligent  farmer,  from  New  England,  alfa 
alTures  me  that  for  the  corrednefs  of  Mr.  Bucknall's 
principle  on  clofe-pruning  he  can  vouch,  from  his 
own  praftice  twenty-five  years  ago.  A  pamphlet 
en  Mr.  Bucknall's  principles  and  practice  is  publifh- 

I  i  cd 


49^  NOTES    AND 

ed  in  London,  entitled  The  Orchardist ;  from  which 
the  following  notes  are  taken. 

The  management  of  orchards  is  capable  of  being 
reduced  to  a  fyflem,  under  a  few  general  heads 
concentrated  in  the  principle  of  making  every  tree 
in  orchards,  healthy,  round,  l^^rge,  and  beautiful. 

Due  pruning  would  greatly  prevent  the  fpeckled 
and  stunted  fruits  occafioned  by  the  trees  being  over- 
loaded with  wood ;  which  obllrufts  the  rays  of  the 
fun,  and  caufes  a  vapour,  the  cold  whereof  stunts 
the  fruit  in  its  firfl  growth. 

,  The  bark  of  trees  confifts  of  the  outer,  rough ; 
the  middle y  foft  and  fpongy ;  the  inner,  a  whitilh 
rind  which  joins  the  bark  to  the  wood,  and  is  fup- 
pofed  to  contain  the  liquid  fap. 

When  the  flem  grows  too  fafl  for  the  bark,  it 
caufes  blotches  and  lacerations ;  which  is  avoided 
h^  f coring  the  hark  with  a  fliarp  knife,  fo  as  not  tn 
cut  through  the  whitilh  rind  or  inner  bai'k. 

; 

CLOSE-PRUNING,   AND  MEDICATING 
FRUIT-TREES. 

Pruning  with  judgment  brings  trees  to  bear 
fooner ;  and  continue  in  vigour  nearly  double  their 

common 


INTIMATIONS.  499 

common  age.  Mr.  Bucknall  gives  no  attention  to 
fruit  branches  and  'wood  branches  in  the  prefent  in- 
flance.*  No  branch  is  ever  to  ht portened  ;  unlcfs 
for  the  figure  of  the  t/ee,  and  then  clofe  at  the  fe- 
paration. 

The  more  the  range  of  the  branches  flioot  circu- 
larly, a  little  inclining  upward,  the  more  equally  the 
fap  will  be  didributed,  and  the  better  will  the  tree 
bear. 

Let  not  the  ranges  of  branches  be  too  near  each 
other ;  as  all  the  fruit  and  leaves  ftiould  have  thnr 
full  (hare  of  iht  fun.  Where  it  fuits,  let  the  mid- 
dle of  the  tree  be  free  from  wood ;  fo  that  no 
branch  croiTes  another,  but  all  the  extreme  ends 
point  outwards* 

A  neighbour  faying,  your  trees  are  handfonis  but 
too  thin  of  wood,  is  a  high  compliment ;  for  fuch 
trees  will  gain  the  befl:  price  for  the  fruit  at  market. 
a  fure  teft  of  perfection. 

A  young  orchard  was  planted  in  a  rich  foil  and  it 

throve  greatly.     Such  vigorous  growth  occafioned 

I  i  2  an 

♦  The  expreffion  "  In  the  prefent  inftance''  muft  me?.n,  in 
general,  refpefting  his  prefent  fubjed  of  pruning :  gives  no 
attention  to  fruit  branches  and  wood  branches,  in  pruning 
fruit  trees  fuiTered  to  ran  greatly  into  wood  :  but  thins  Uiem 
to  be  j/Vv,  and  to  ^wzjhape  and  regular  l-ranchet. 


50O 


NOTES    AND 


an  early  decay  of  the  trees,  from  the  wind  fplitting 
thera  down ;  and  the  wood  being  foft  many  caufes 
concurred  to  injure  them.  The  injudicious  manner 
in  which  the  lacerations  were  taken  oiF  added  to  the 
evil  J  for  generally  a  gum  follows  from  a  wound, 
and  this  becomes  filled  with  vermin,  which  obdruft 
the  healing  by  their  eating  and  fretting  the  bark. 
Mr.  Bucknall  is  here  fpeaking  of  an  orchard  of  both 
apple  and  cherry  trees ;  the  latter  yield  gum. 

He  found  the  branches  fo  intermixed  and  entan- 
gled together  as  to  cut  each  other  and  caufc  wounds 
and  blotches ;  which  on  the  return  of  the  fap  in  the 
fpriug,  affefts  the  leaves  by  inclining  them  to  curK 

In  this  ftate  of  the  orchard,  in  the  November 
following,  Mr.  Bucknall  undertook  to  improve  it ; 
and  found  that  the  branches  could  not  be  cut  true 
enough  with  a  bill,  to  take  them  off,  without  leav- 
ing a  ftump  or  improper  wound,  as  it  is  effential 
that  every  branch  fliould  be  cut  perfe£lly  clofe  and 
fmooth.  He  therefore  ufed  faws,  and  afterwards 
fvioothed  with  a  knife.  Immediately  on  this  the 
wounds,  with  medicated  tar  on  a  brufli,  were  fmear- 
ed  over. 

As  the  hark  can  never  grow  over  a  stump,  he  al- 
ways cuts  a  little  within  the  wood.  The  rule  is  to 
cut  (luick,  clofe,  2^Xid  fmooth. 

Mr. 


INTIMATIONS.  50I 

Mr.  Bucknall  and  his  affiftants  kept  together,  and 
firfl:  walked  round  the  tree.  He  then  pointed  out 
every  branch  that  came  near  the  ground  or  had  re- 
ceived material  injury^  or  where  the  leaves  were 
much  curled  (which  are  accompanied  with  fpecky 
fruit;)  and  every  branch  having  the  least  tendency 
to  crofs  the  tree  or  run  inwards,  all  whereof  were 
taken  off.  Then  he  attended  to  the  beauty  of  the 
head,  leaving  all  the  branches  as  nearly  equidiftant 
as  poffible.  Next  they  examined  if  there  were  any 
remaining  blotches ;  and  opened  and  fcored  them 
with  the  knife ;  and  where  the  bark  was  ragged 
from  laceration,  pared  it  gently  down  till  they  came 
to  the  live  wood.  Each  of  thefe  were  then  touch- 
ed over  with  the  medicated  tar.  The  mofs  fhould 
then  be  rubbed  off  and  the  ixtzs  fcored. 

In  cutting  they  went  to  the  quick,  but  avoided 
making  the  wound  larger  than  neceffary. 

In  doubting  whether  a  particular  branch  fhould 
be  taken  off,  they  confidered  if  it  will  be  in  the 
way  three  years  hence.  If  it  will,  the  fooner  it  is 
off  the  better. 

When  trees  are  much  trimmed  they  throw  out 
many  Ihoots  in  the  fpring.  It  is  neceffary  that  thefe 
be  rubbed  off,  not  cut  j  for  cutting  increafes  them. 

The 


^bl  NOTES    AND 

The  MFDicATED  TAR  IS  compofcd  oF  one  "half 
ounce  of  corrof,'ve  fiibUmate^  reduced  to  a  fine  pow- 
der by  beating  it  with  z\vooden  haniTier :  then  put 
it  into  a  three-pint  earthen  pipkin,  with  a  glafs  full 
of  gin  or  other  fpirit  ftirred  Veil  together,  and  the 
fubliniate  thus  diflblved.  The  pipkin  is  then  filled 
by-degrees  with  common  tnr,  and  conflantly  flirred, 
till  the  mixture  is  blended,  intimately  as  poillble. 
This  quantity  is  fufficient  for  200  trees. 

Corrofive  fublimate  is  a  violent  polfon  ;  and  to 
prevent  mifchief,  it  is  to  be  icftantly  mixed  in  the 
tar,  y;5.'7  as  bought.  Mr.  Bucknall  finds  the  fubli- 
mate diiTolves  better  when   united  wi:h  the  fame 

c 

•quantity  of  fpirit  of  harffhom  or  of  fal  ammoniac* 

Farmers  fearing  to  meddle  with  corrofive  fubli- 
mate may  get  their  apothecary  to  mix  the  ingredi- 
ents; the  tar  being  fent  to  him.  Or  let  them  try 
the  following  as  an  experiment.  Mix  fi{h  oil  one 
;^  .rt  with  tar  two  or  three  parts,  by  ftirring  them 
well  over  a  gentle  fire,  that  the  mixture  may  be 
peiTc^.  Apply  it  when  cold.  Would  you  add 
things  bitter  or  acrid  ;   as  alces,  or  red  pepper  ? 

For  ginng  more  body  or  conuflence  to  this  mix- 
ture, ^dd  fine  powder  o  fullers  earth  or  clay ;  or 
according  to  Lord  Newark,  powdered  chalk. 

Do 

*  Ccrober,  -svo'jld  give  more  time  for  the  vrcunds  to  heal, 
|;efore  -s^inter  fets  in. 


INTIMATIONS.  503 

Do  not  attempt  to  force  a  tree  to  grow  higher 
than  it  is  difpofed  to  grow :  but  keep  the  branches 
out  of  the  reach  of  cattle :  then  let  them  follow 
.their  natural  growth. 

In  general  prune  trees  y^ow  as  the  fruit  is  off,  that 
the  wounds  may  tend  towards  healing  before  the 
froft  comes  on. 

The  fubflantial  form  of  the  tree  is  the  fame  before 
and  after  pruning.  It  is  of  the  fame  fize,  and  the 
extreme  flioots  are  all  kept  at  the  fame  diflance. 
But  too  often  the  heads  of  trees  are  mutilated  and 
the  tree  is  left  in  a  more  decaying  Itate. 

The  year  before  the  trees  are  to  be  planted  out, 
choofe  and  prune  them  in  the  nurfery ;  taking  off 
perfeftly  clofe,  all  rambling  and  unfightly  branches, 
leaving  the  beads  to  three  or  four  good  leading 
flioots.  From  pruning  thus  in  the  7iurfery  the  year 
preceding  the  planting  out  the  trees,  it  will  not  be 
requifite  to  prune  for  fome  time ;  and  the  wounds 
being  healed,  will  accelerate  their  growth.  Plant 
none  galled,  fretted  or  cankered.  Take  them  up 
to  be  planted,  with  roots  long  as  is  convenient. 
Prepare  ftakes  before  the  day  of  planting,  and  Hake 
them  immediately. 

Shelter,  by  trees,  is  requifite  on  the  cold  blow- 
ing fides  of  the  orchard,  north-weft  to  north- cafi:. 

Plant 


5e4.  NOTES    AND 

Plant  not  the  trees  too  deep ;  many  ills  arife  from 


It. 


Mr.  Bucknall's  tools  are  ;  two  pruning  knives ; 
a  faw  ;  two  chifels ;  a  mallet; ;  a  fpoke  fhave,  and 
a  painter's  bruih.  With  the  chifels  and  fpoke  fhave 
work  upwards,  or  the  bark  will  {hiver.  The  faw 
muiL  be  coarfe  fet ;  all  the  other  tools  Iharp  and 
fmooth, 

He  prefers  the  blade-bone  of  a  doe,  for  rubbing 
pff  rotten  bark,  mofs,  &c. 

When  the  trees  are  planted,  a  quefl:ion  arifes 
what  ufe  is  to  be  made  of  the  ground  ?  To  plow  it 
is  dangerous ;  as  the  injuries  received  by  young 
trees  from  implements  in  hulbandry  are  great ;  and 
if  any  kind  of  corn  is  grown,  the  land  is  impover- 
iflied,  and  then  the  trees  are  ftunted  and  run  to 
mofs.  Hc^s  do  well  for  fome  years,  and  then  let 
the  ground  be  grazed :  and  the  ground  is  never  to 
be  plowed  deep  directly  ever  the  roots  of  a  young 
planted  fruit  tree. 

Manure  is  neceiTary  to  an  orchard  ;  and  hog*s 
dung  is  the  befl:.  Watering  orchards  in  dry  weather 
is  important — which  may  be  beft  accompliflied  if  a 
flream  can  be  led  through  it. 

Prevent 


INTIMATIONS.  5©5 

Prevent  young  trees  bearing  much  fruit :  pluck 
it  off  foon  as  feen,  except  half  a  dozen  to  fliow  the 
quality.  Graze  and  manure.  Hogs  are  bed  to  run 
in  orchards. 

Although  no  leading  branches  are  to  h^Jhortenedy 
yet  whilll  in  the  nurfery,  the  heads  mufl  be  cut  down 
to  give  (Irength  and  fymmetry  to  the  ftera ;  and  al- 
fo  moil  of  the  grafts  mud  be  fhortened,  or  the 
wind  will  blow  them  out ;  and  whilft  in  the  infant 
state,  {hortening  the  plant  helps  to  fwell  out  the 
buds.  Shorten:ng  is  only  forbid  when  the  plant  he- 
comes  a  tree. 

Mofs  is  the  refult  of  poverty  and  negkd,  and  re- 
fle£ls  difcredit  on  the  owner.  In  a  wet  day,  a 
ftrong  man  with  a  birch-broom  can  do  great  good 
on  mofs.  He  is  to  rub  all  the  branches,  fpring  and 
autumn,  with  a  hand-bruih  and  foap-fuds.  They 
may  then  be  oiled  or  not,  as  you  like. 

The  befl  orchard  foil  is  a  deep  loam.  No  one  for 
profit  would  plant  on  a  ll:rong  clay  or  a  cold  fharp 
gravel.  But  where  it  is  necefTary  to  plant  on  thefe 
foils,  never  dig  into  the  undcr-flrata  ;  which  would 
be  planting  in  well-holes :  rather  plant  the  trees 
above  ground,  raifing  over  them  a  little  mound  of 
good  mould,  and  fow  on  it  white  clover. 

In 


5C6  NOTES    AND 

In  pruning,  never  omit  the  inedkation;  as  the 
^mercury  is  found  ftrongly  operative  in  removing  the 
effei3:s  of  canker,  giving  a  fmoothnefs  of  the  bark, 
and  a  freenefs  of  growth. 

The  fyflem  of  clofc-pruning  and  ?nedication  here 

•follows,  that  it  may  be  feen  at  once : Take  off 

■every  stump,  the  decayed  or  blighted  branches,  with 
all  that  crofs  the  tree,  or  where  the  leai^s  curl, 
chfe,  fmooth,  and  even.  Pare  the  gum  down  clofe 
to  the  bark,  and  even  a  Httle  within,  but  not  to 
deftroy  the  rough  coat :  open  the  fiffures  from 
whence  the  gum  oozes,  to  the  bottom :  cut  away 
the  blotches  and  pare  down  the  canker  :  then  anoint 
all  the  wounds  with  the  medication,  fmearing  a  lit- 
tle over  the  canker  not  large  enough  to  be  cut: 
'walh  and  fcore  the  tree,  rubbing  off  the  mofs  j  but 
•  do  wo/y2>i7r/#«  a  fingle  branch. 

A  tree  under  fuch  care  muft,  with  its  remaining 
free  fhoots,  run  large  ;  which  requiring  a  great  flow 
of  fap  will  keep  the  roots  in  conftant  employ,  and 
from  that  very  fource  neceffarily  eflablilli  permanent 
■health. 

-  Canker,  he  fays,  arifes  much  from  animalculcE  j 
and  if  the  only  objeft  is  to  remove  the  canker,  he 
finds  hogs-lard  preferable  to  tar  j  but  where  wet  is 

to 


INTIMATIONS,  ^6y 

to  be  guarded  againfl,   tar  is  fuperlatively  better. 
Therefore  tar  and  oil,  as  above. 

Mr.  Morjhead  praflifed  clofe-prunlng  and'  m^dica- 
'  Hon,  according  to  Mr.  Bucknall,  on  a  greal  variety 
of  fruit  trees  of  all  ages  j  which  fuccecded  beyoiid 
his  expeftations. 

Mr.  Tivamky*^  principles  on  pruning  orchards 
accord  with  Mr.  Bucknail's,  as  far  as  he  touches  on 
it. 

PEACH     TREES, 

A  farmer  in  New-Jerfey  has  publiihed  in  the 
news-papers,  an  account  of  peach  trees ;  in  which 
he  fays,  on  the  fecond  of  June  1795  his  peach  trees 
were  in  a  very  fickly  ftate :  that  he  applied  the  re- 
medy below  mentioned ;  in  confequencc  whereof 
by  the  middle  of  fidy  they  had  recovered  their  full 
verdure  and  health;  and  that  in  1799  they  ftill 
continued  in  full  health. 

His  remedy  was  in  laying  bare  the  stems  of  the 
trees  and  the  roots  near  to  the  stems,  by  taking  the 
earth  away.  There  then  appeared  in  the  trees  a 
number  of  holes  the  lize  of  gimblet  boles.  On 
probing  them  hairy  wbf-ms  were  brought  out,  of  a 
whitifli  colour,    except  that  the  head  was  brown 

with 


5c8  NOTES    AND 

with  a  {harp  nofe ;  and  it  was  an  inch  long  and  had 
a  boring  motion.  Burdock  leaves  were  dipped  in 
whale  oil  (currier's  filh  oil)  and  wrapped  about  the 
part  of  the  trees  affected  ;  and  then  the  earth  taken 
off  was  thrown  on  them.  Six  quarts  of  oil  ferved 
twenty  trees.  Three  of  his  trees  had  bees  under 
thera,  in  hives.  Fearing  to  diflurb  the  bees  with 
the  fmell  of  the  oil,  the  flems  and  roots  only  were 
laid  bare  as  above ;  and  thefe  trees  alfo  recovered. 

He  thinks  the  effluvium  of  the  oil  foon  killed  the 
•worms  in  the  firft  inflance ;  and  that  from  their  be- 
ing very  porous,  the  air  entering  the  pores  killed 
them  in  the  lall:  inftance  :  and  he  adds  as  his  opinion 
that  if  the  trees  are  laid  bare  as  above  in  tlie  fpring 
and  coi'tred  before  winter  fets  in,  it  may  anfwer  the 
deCred  effect,  with  taking  off  the  fungus  or  gum 
on  the  body  of  the  tree  under  which  the  worms 
breed.  A  number  of  them  were  taken  from  within 
a  lump  of  gum,  and  they  all  "  diffolved"  in  the  air. 
The  old  worm  on  having  a  drop  of  oil  put  on  its 
head,  drew  up  in  a  ball  and  inflantly  died. 

He  fays,  a  large  peach  orchard,  in  Jerfey,  was 
on  a  loofe  fand,  called  the  fand  hills ;  which  he 
thinks  was  "  an  old  orchard  in  1738,"  when  he 
knew  it,  and  he  thinks  it  was  in  being  in  1776 
when  he  rode  over  thofe  hills,  fo  that  it  continued 

more 


INTIMATIONS. 


509 


more  than  40  years.     He  thereon  infers  that  fandy 
foil  is  beft  for  peach  trees. 

I  have  known  peach  trees  give  fruit  many  years 
in  the  fandy  lands  of  Severn  River,  in  the  country 
about  Annapolis ;  and  alfo  on  clay  loams  in  the 
peninfula  of  Chefapeak ;  where  they  were  in  old 
fields,  or  free  from  fpade  or  plow  breaking  the 
ground  near  them.  An  apricot  tree  flood  a  number 
of  years  in  a  garden  where  the  ground  was  yearly 
dug  about  it  j  the  fruit  always  dropt  off  before  it 
could  ripen.  That  part  of  the  garden  being  turn- 
ed out,  the  ground  fettled  and  remained  clofe  and 
hard  all  about  the  tree  :  from  which  time  it  matur- 
ed its  fruit. 

The  winter  1783-4  was  extremely  feverc.  Its 
froft  killed  many  noble  oaks  and  other  trees,  but 
not  one  of  many  peach  trees  in  my  orchard  and  gar- 
den. The  garden  peach  trees  annually  fuffered  by 
the  worm  above  defcribed,  but  not  thofe  in  the 
orchard  where  the  ground  remained  unstirred.  In 
the  fpring  1784  many  feedling  peach  trees  being 
hove  up  by  the  frofl,  feemed  to  ftand  on  their  main 
roots  partly  above  ground,  without  being  injured. 
Thefe  proofs  of  the  hardinefs  of  peach  trees  induc- 
ed me  to  dig  the  earth  from  the  garden  peach  trees 
late  in  November  and  return  it  in  April.     In  feveral 

years 


5IO  NOTES    AND 

f 

years  of  this  being  practifed,  I  recollect  no  inftance 
of  the  worm  in  thofe  trees. 

DIET    FOR    PRISONERS: 

— liTued  to  the  prifoners  in  the  gaol  of  Philadel- 
phia in  1798  J  for  230  men  and  women. 

BREAKFAST  AND  SUPPER : 

Indian-meal  294  gals.  jib.  a  gal,  147ft.  at  C.  M. 

2  c.  i^m.  a  tb.             .             .             .  .         314  6 

Melaffes  44  gals,  at  60  c.         .         .           .  .           270  o 

Salt  I  qts.             .              .             •             .  .            6  6 

Water  96  gals,  in  Mujh  384  qts.  of  which  ■ 


c.  m.  591    2 

Forbreakfaft,  at  i  3  (more  esa<ft  1.285)  CM. 

each  perfon,  295  5 

For  fupper,     do.  295  5 


DINNER. 

Beef  5ctfe.  at  6.6 

. 

3300 

Shins  4 

. 

53  3 

Potatoes  \\  bufh. 

. 

75  0 

Meal,  for  thickening, 

12  qti. 

•       43  3 

Onions,  herbs,  peppe: 

r,  fait 

2Z    0 

Water  56  gals.— ^ca/  224  qts. 

»-   >S    T          K 

I  112    8 

Dimmer 


INTIMATIONS. 


5" 


C.  VI. 

Dinner,  224  q\s.  foup,  coft  521  6  or  each  2  2    (more 

€xa<a]y  2  t-tA)- 
Breakfaft,  each  perfon  .  .  13 

Supper,  do.  .  .  .13 


Tliree  meals.    48a  dar. 

Tlieir  diet  is  varied. 

The  fums  ot"  the  account  kept  are  in  £.  S.  D.  here  reduced 
to  Cents  and  Mills  ;   10  Mills  a  Cent ;  100  Cents  a  Dollar. 


THRASHING  MILLS. 

In  1782  Colonel  Anderfon  then  of  Philadelphia, 
now  refiding  on  the  Sufquehsnna,  near  Lancafler, 
invented  a  mill  moved  by  horfes,  for  thralliing  wheat 
and  other  fraail  grain  out  from  its  ftraw  :  and  took 
the  hint  from  feeing  a  cotton  machine  at  work  in  Phi- 
ladelphia. In  1 79 1  he  built  one  of  full  lize  j  which 
(on  a  trial  of  it')  I  faw  work  to  advantage,  though 
as  Colonel  Anderfon  well  obferved,  it  was  capable 
of  confiderable  improvement.  But  having  fince  in- 
vented a  thralhing  mil!,  on  different  principles,  a  mo- 
del of  which  I  faw  work  admirably  welj,  he  proba- 
bly has  not  further  attended  to  the  firft ;  and  I  wait 
to  hear  of  his  ordinary  bufmefs  admitting  him  to 
build  one  of  full  fize,  on  his  new  invention  oi  rubbing, 
iuftead  of  striking  out  the  grain.  If  this  kind  of 
mill  Ihall  be  equal  to  the  former  when  both  are 

worked 


512 


KOTES    AND 


waAed  whh  horfes,  it  will  have  the  further  advan- 
tage of  admittiDg  to  be  reduced  in  fize  and  then 
wcAcd  by  one  (V  two  men  at  a  winch  or  two  furta- 
blc  to  fmall  farms :  fo  that  hofbandmen  on  farms  of 
all  iizes  might  ofc  them  in  place  of  flail  and  treading. 
RtMa^y  in  idea,  is  inferior  to  striking  ;  yet  the  above 
modd  petfbrmed  forpnfingly  well,  in  rubbing  out 
vheat. 

About  the  time  that  Colonel  Anderfon  invented 
his  mill,  a  thiafhing  mill,  <m  the  very  fame  princi- 
l^es,  was  invented  in  Scotland.* 

Colofiel  DunJas,  in  the  1 5  Annal  gives  an  ac- 
coimt  of  a  thrafhing  mill  built  for  him  by  Mr.  Ras- 
frick  in  Scotland.  It  had  then  been  worked  for  the 
greateft  part  of  two  crops  ;  and  the  Colonel  fays  the 
mill  is  in  a  bam  ;  an  ofiugon  (hed  built  on  the  out- 
fide  was  only  necefiary  to  be  added  for  covering  the 
^diod  and  horfe-path  -,  and  that. 


The 


*  b  England  and  Soodand  it  Is  fband  vcrf  adv^antageous 
•D  naf  dicir  wbeatemrfy,  that  is  meaitt  to  be  beat  otit  by  the 
fluU  ;  J»  aufy  as  that  tbejtramjballcmrt  tatigbt  and  not  break 
ihatt  and  britde  under  the  operatioo  of  dae  mill :  by  which 
means  die  wheat  is  nmch  more  perfectly  iaTed,  according  to 
die  "■fi»w>atMM»  of  an  i^fidii^cnt  English  farmer  now  in 
America. 


INTIMATIONS.  5I3 

The   mill  cofl:  flerling   45;^^. 

equal  to  Dollars     200 

A  cover  of  boards,  with  "| 

wire  platform    under  I 

the  beaters                  ;C3*   3*  r*                      ^7 

The  fhed,  to  cover  the  j 

wheel  and  horfes  12.  o.  J  ■ 

267 

The  wire  platform  begins  under  the  canvafs,  or 
Doping  board,  and  extends  as  far  as  any  grain  falls, 
and  has  openings  to  allow  the  grain  to  pafs.  A  wo- 
man and  boy  with  a  rake  can  clear  the  machine  of 
ftraw,  whilft  the  grain  falls  through  the  wire  in  a 
ftate  for  being  fanned. 

It  thraflies  1  So  bujhe/j cfzvbeat'm  tenhours^  very 
clean.  Barley  is  thraflied  with'flails,  after  it  comes 
from  the  mill  for  breaking  off  the  awns  or  beards. 

One  horfe  will  work  the  machine  :  rather  hard 
work.  He  ufes  two  horfes.  If  a  diligent  perfon 
drives  the  horfes,  all  pcrfons  about  the  mill  mufl  be 
bufy. 

The  hands  neceilkry  are  the  driver,  a  boy  ;  the 
feeder,  a  careful  attentive  perfon  ;  a  perfon  to  rake, 
and  tijco  to  bundle  the  flraw.  He  confiders  it  work 
for  three  men  and  t'-^o  boys. 

'  K  k  Mr. 


314  KOTES    AND 

Mr.  Moztbray,  of  Durham,  fays  his  thrafhing  mill, 
built  by  Mr.  Rajtrick,  has  given  him  great  fatisfac- 
tion.  He  ufes  two  horfes, '  a  boy,  a  man,  and  two 
women.  It  had  thrafhed  out  1 2800  bu£hels  of  wheat; 
6400  bufliels  of  oats,  and  6400  buihels  of  barley  : 
in  all  25600  bufliels  of  grain  ;  and  had  cod  him  no- 
thing in  repairs  ;  and  there  is  no  difficulty  in  work- 


Mr.  Wiikie  fays  his  thrafliing  mill  is  fo  Cmple  that 
repairs  can  be  feldom  wanting.  It  is  a  mofl  valuable 
machine. 

Mr.  B:\s*s  mill  is  in  a  barn,  and  a  projefting  build- 
ing contains  the  great  wheel :  which  is  12  feet  dia- 
meter, has  120  cogs  working  into  12  :  the  cogs  at 
the  end  of  the  {haft  are  87,  which  work  into  14. 
The  under,  of  the  two  cylinders,  for  drawing  the 
com  through,  is  of  wood,  the  upper  of  cafi:  iron  :  a 
wheel  of  15  cogs  works  into  33  for  turning  them. 
The  beating  or  flail  wheel  (or  barrel),  is  5  feet  long, 
and  3>-  feet  diameter  to  outlide  beaters :  has  4  of 
thefe  beaters,  or  battens  fixed  to  it,  and  flrikes  up- 
'Lvard: ;  icoo  ftrokes  in  a  minute.  Others  flrikc 
dtmrniuards,  which  do  not  clear  away  the  ftraw 
equally  well.  The  flraw  is  carried  over  the  beating 
wheel,  and  falls  on  a  latticed  floor,  for  the  fliort  fluff 
to  fall  through.     Four  horfes  work  the  mill.     A  hoy 

drives : 


INTIMATIONS.  515 

drives  :  a  niati  throws  up  the  flieaves  :  a  boy  fupplies  : 
one  man  to  fprcad  them  on  the  inclined  plane ;  and 
two  men  to  fork  away  the  ftraw.  'The  whole  4  wt«, 
2  boys,  4  horfes*  It  thraihcd  360  bujhels  of  oats  in 
10  hours.  For  clearing  away  the  flraw,  as  it  comes 
from  the  mill,  a  wheel  turns  in  a  direftion  contrary 
to  the  beating  wheel,  and  clears  it  completely.  1 5 
An.  481.  20  An.  248.  504. — Mr.  Meikle\  built  a 
mill  for  Mr.  Adams,  worked  \^\\hfour  horfes,  which 
thrailies  out  640  bujhels  oats  in  10  hours.  Length 
of  the  barrel  44  feet,  diameter  3^  feet,  treble  motion. 
Wheels,  cafl:  iron.  There  are  many  mills  for  thrafli- 
ing,  of  different  conftruftion  in  England  and  Scot- 
land :  all  on  the  principle  of  battefis  upon  a  barrel^ 
for  beating  out  the  grain. 

K  k  2  LABOUR' 

*  Horfes  are  more  expenfive  than  oxen  for  all  fuch  -v^'ork  j 
and  they  are  lefs  fteady  than  ox:n.  Whilft  oxen  are  perform- 
ing the  work,  they  increafe  in  value  full  ten  dollars  a  yean 
This  with  their  dung  pays  for  tlieir  keeping :  fo  that  tlieir  la- 
bour is  clear  gain. 

f  Mr.  And.  Meikl:  erefted  his  firfl  threfhing  mill  in  1788  ; 
fince  when  he  has  progrefllvely  improved  them.  The  labour 
isfimplified,  and  the  performnnce  augmented.  By  adding  rakes  or 
fhakers,  and  two  pair  of  fanners,  all  driven  by  the  fame  ma- 
chinery, threfliing,  fhaking,  and  winnov.-ing,  are  now  perform- 
ed all  at  once,  and  the  grain  is  made  clean  for  market. 


5i6 


NOTES    AND 


LABOURING  POOR,    in  ENGLAND, 

Mr.  Marfhall  flates  the  expences  of  a  labcuring 
or  poor  family  in  England  thus 


For  Wheat  and  rye 
Fuel 

Candles  and  foap 
Furniture 
Tools 
Rent 

Man's  coat,  S:c. 
Hofe  and  hat 
Shirts 
Shoes 

Wife  and  children's  clothes 
Meat,  &^c.     . 


Shil. 


Cenu. 


120    or    2666 


i^ 


10 

5 
26 

22 

o 

10 


86 
448 


288 
177 
222 
III 

577 

488 

66 

222 

177 

191 1 

3044 

99-5- 


So  that,  in  England,  a  labourer  having  a  wife  and 
two  children,  and  expending  ico  dollars,  has  4 
dollars  over  and  above  the  means  of  fupporting 
them  through  the  year  in  a  comfortable  habitation, 
with  the  other  neceffary  comforts  of  life.  They 
fcarcely  fpend  a  (hilling  on  phyfick.  Keeping  out 
of  tippling  houfes,  which  is  eafily  and  cheerfully 
obferved  by  a  good  hufband  and  father,  the  four 
dollars  is  a  treafure  of  evidence  to  a  round  of  per- 
ennial content  and  happinefs ;  in  fuccefhon  through 
father  and  fon  from  generation  to  generation. 

LABOUR' 


INTIMATIONS. 


5^7 


LABOURING  POOR  in  IRELAND.— Expences, 


Cabbin  and  garden 
Labour  in  the  garden 
Two  cows 
Hay  for  them 
Turf  (fuel)      . 
Clothing  1 5s.  a  head,  for  5 
Tools      .... 
Hearth  tax 


ShU. 

30 
50 
30 
14 
7S 

5 
1 


or 


Cents. 

666 

666 

nil 

666 

311 
1666 

III 

44 


236s.  or  52.44 


Their  Receipts. 
The  year  .         .         3^5  ^^JS- 


92 


dedua, 

Sundays     . 

52 

Bad  weather 

30 

Holy-days 

10 

Two  calves 

s. 

30 

Pig 

•                  • 

20 

Poultry 

«                  • 

5 

d. 


273  at  6,  1 36:  6  or  3035 


;o3  days  fpinning  by  ^  ^^  ^^^     ^'^  .  ^• 
wife  and  daughter  S      ^     


—130:3      2900 

266:9  =  5935 
Expenles 


5l8  NOTES    AND 

'  8.         d.              cenu. 

Expenfes              .         .         .  236 :  o  zz  5244 

Remain  for  whifky,  &c.  &c.  30  :  9           686 


266  :  9  =  59.30 

Thefe  cotters  Mr.  Young  fays,  are  very  much 
addifted  to  pilfering. — He  adds,  their  general  cha- 
racter is  idlenefs^  with  want  of  attention. — Such 
habits  muft  arife  from  their  having  more  arable  land 
than  is  manageable  by  a  cottager  or  mere  labouring 
man,  or  than  is  confident  with  his  office  and  calling ; 
and  they  become  neither  good  or  happy  labourers, 
nor  contented,  orderly,  induflrious  land-holders ; 
and  then  they  are  apt  to  degenerate  into  low  beings 
of  no  character  or  worth  in  themfelves  or  to  others 
■ — and  from  total  idlenefs^  the  common  parent  of 
vice,  become  fhifty  plunderers  of  the  fruits  of  the 
labour  and  cares  of  others.  In  fa£l,  Mr.  Young 
aflures  us  that  in  Ireland  the  cottager  has  allowed 
him  one  and  an  half  acres  of  garden  with  the  grafs 
of  one  or  two  cows,  and  moreover  the  daily  pay  of 
fix  pence  the  year  through.  It  is  there  thought 
difficult  to  raife  a  race  of  little  farmers  from  the  cot- 
tagers, by  adding  land  gradually  to  them  at  a  fair 
rent ;  and  indeed  it  feems  it  would  be  unfriendly  to 
the  poor,  to  attempt  to  elevate  them  from  happy 
contented  cottagers  to  become  but  inferior,  imper- 
feci:,  and  difcontented  mean  farmers. 

Whilft 


INTIMATIONS.  5I9 

Whilfl  the  Irijh  cottager  has  more  acres  than  one, 
the  EngUjh  cottager  fcarcely  has  a  fourth  part  of  one 
acre.*  Of  the  fame  ground  being  too  much  for  a 
cottager  and  too  little  for  a  farmer^  fee  before  in 
this  work,  of  Labourers,  Cottages,  and  Cottagers. 
An  acre  and  an  half,  with  the  grafs  ground  of  one 
or  two  cows,  equal  to  2  to  4  acres,  are  in  all  on  a 
medium  4^  acres,  or  1 8  to  i  of  the  Enghfh  cotta- 
ger's portion. 

HOG-CISTERNS 

Made  of  brick  and  terrace  are  objected  to,  as 
being  too  coflly,  though  among  the  firil  convenien- 
cies  of  a  farm  houfe  ; — to  wooden  ones,  the  objec- 
tion is  becaufe  incommodious  ; — and  leaden,  becaufe 
poifonous  and  dangerous.  But  the  cifterns  prefer- 
red are  built  of  bricks  layed  in  clay,  and  furrounded 
with  a  coat  of  clay.  Sink  the  pit  where  it  is  conve- 
nient to  the  dairy-kitchen  and  hog-yard,  jointly. — 
Above  ground  raife  a  nine  inch  wall  one  foot  high ; 
raifmg  a  ridge  roof  over  it ;  and  placing  a  door  in 
one  of  the  gable  ends. — MarJhalL 

PRESERVATION  of  SEINS,    TWINE,  and 
SMALL  ROPE. 

Mix  5  parts  tar,  and  one  oifjh-oil,  melting  them 
together,  for  thoroughly  incorporating  them ;  and 

while 

*  From  whence  follows,  content  in  the  Englifh  cottager — 
difcontent,  and  WTetchednefs  in  the  JriJJj  cottager. 


520  NOTES    AND 

while  quite  hot  (but  not  to  burn)  the  nets  being  in 
a  tub,  pour  the  hot  mixture  upon  them  in  quantity 
fufficient  to  wet  them  entirely.  The  mixture  is 
then  drawn  off  by  a  hole  at  the  bottom  of  the  tub, 
immediately,  in  order  that  too  much  of  it  may  not 
ftick,  and  make  the  nets  clammy,  which  would  hap- 
pen if  cooled  upon  them  :  and  to  prevent  the  net 
flopping  the  hole  at  the  bottom,  a  balket  like  cover 
fhould  be  applied  over  the  hole,  not  in  it.  Thus, 
fpreading  nets  to  dry  is  rendered  unnecejfary,  is  a 
great  faving  of  labour  ;  and  the  practice  has  become 
very  general  in  the  fifhery  on  the  coafl  of  Ireland. 

CEMENT    FLOORS. 

They  have  lately  become  commonly  applied  to 
cottages.  The  materials  are  lime  and  fand,  mixed 
in  nearly  the  fame  proportion  and  prepared  in  the 
fame  manner  as  the  common  morter  of  bricklayers  ; 
but  is  made  flronger  and  fofter  than  for  laying 
bricks.  The  bed  made  fair  and  level,  the  materials 
are  carried  on  in  pails,  in  a  ftate  between  paste  and 
baiter  and  laid  4  or  5  inches  thick  ;  alfo  an  inch 
higher  than  the  intended  floor,  to  allow  for  fettling 
in  drying.  The  whole  being  well  worked  over  with 
a  fpade,  the  furface  is  fmoothed  with  a  trowel ;  and 
as  it  dries  is  repeatedly  beaten  with  a  flat  beater — 
better  fwitches  to  prevent  cracking,  the  workman 
/landing  on  planks.     In  two  or  three  weeks  it  may 

te 


INTIMATIONS. 


5?i 


be  walked  on.  On  the  laft:  beating,  if  crofs  iines 
be  deeply  graven  on  the  furface,  the  floor  has  the 
appearance,  as  well  as  ufefulnefs  of  a  freeilone 
floor. 

TURNIP-SLICER. 

For  feeding  turnips  away  with  fafety  againfl:  their 
choking  cattle,  and  rendering  them  eafily  eaten  by 
young  flock,  many  contrivances  have  been  applied 
to  cut,  chop,  or  flice  them ;  of  which  Cuthbert 
Clarke's  feems  the  mofl;  Ample  and  eflicacious  : — 
Two  men  fitting  with  Clarke's  machine  between 
them,  and  facing  each  other,  cut  into  flices  three 
quarters  of  an  inch  thick,  three  tons  of  turnips  per 
hour,  by  pufliing  a  frame  to  and  fro  having  a  dou- 
ble edged  fpoke  fliave  knife  which  cuts  going  and 
returning.  The  machine  has  an  oaken  frame,  a 
hopper  or  trunk  containing  the  turnips  to  be  cut ; 
the  turnips  refling  -on  a  board  in  the  Aiding  frame, 
whilft  this  is  moved  backward  and  forward  with  the 
knife  which  cuts  the  turnips,  and  the  flices  fall 
through  into  a  bafket.  The  Aiding  frame  has  a 
flrap  at  the  crofs  piece  of  each  end  for  checking  the 
frame  at  each  end  alternately.  The  knife  can  be 
fet  to  cut  the  flices  half  an  inch  thick. 

The  machine  is  4;.  feet  high;  24-  feet  long;  2 
feet  wide,  outfide  meafure,  the  boards  are  of  de;il 

4  of 


522 


NOTES    AND 


4  of  an  inch  thick.  Its  four  pods  are  oak,  4  inches 
fquare.  The  feet,  Aiding  frame,  crofs  bars,  &:c. 
are  alfo  of  oak.  The  hopper  is  angular  within, 
fuited  to  the  angle  the  knife,  when  placed  in  the 
frame,  makes  with  the  fides  thereof,  about  45  de- 
grees. The  frame  Hides  to  and  fro  upon  two  rol-' 
lers,  which  abates  the  friftion.  The  feet  of  the 
four  polls  are  mortifed  into  two  pieces  of  plank  or 
timber,  which  extend  8  or  lo  inches  beyond  the 
polls  to  fecure  it  from  tottering  or  falling. 

The  Hiding  frame  carr}'-ing  the  knife,  has  a  board 
bottom  larger  than  the  lower  aperture  of  the  hop- 
per, which  has  no  other  bottom  than  the  board  fix- 
ed in  the  Hiding  frame.  This  board  may  be  about 
1 6  inches  wide  between  the  fide  pieces  of  the  Hiding 
frame,  and  2\  feet  long  between  two  crofs  pieces, 
one  at  each  end  of  the  board  bottom,  and  let  into 
the  frame.  This  board,  or  floor  of  the  Hiding 
frame,  is  divided  into  two,  each  divifion  having  an 
oblique  or  diagonal  parallel  fide  to  the  other,  and 
they  leave  a  fpace  between  them  for  the  fliced  tur- 
nips to  fall  through  into  the  baH:et  placed  under  the 
frame.  Over  this  paflage  or  fpace  the  broad  knife 
is  placed,  each  end  of  it  turned  up  at  right  angles 
and  let  through  a  fmall  mortife  of  the  frame,  where 
it  is  fet  to  cut  the  turnips  4.  to  -I-  of  an  inch.  The 
poHtion  of  the  knife  and  the  aperture  in  the  board 
are  exactly  alike  ranged  in  their  obliquity,  of  45 

degrees : 


INTIMATIONS.  523 

degrees :  and  fo  are  the  two  little  mortifes  in  the 
frame.  There  is  a  contrivance  for  clearing  the 
fpace  of  turnip  flices  by  thrufting  them  out  as  the  * 
frame  is  moved.  Mr.  Young  has  given  a  drawing 
of  it  in  his  fecond  Northern  Tour,  by  which  it  is 
befl  explained. 

PLANTATIONS   of  TREES. 

Timber  becomes  fcarce ;  to  an  alarming  degree 
in  the  old  fettled  country  of  the  United  States.  It 
is  therefore  recommended  to  the  confideration  of 
gentlemen  improvhig  farmers,  few  as  they  are,  that 
they  begin  to  grow  plantations  of  wood  the  moil 
generally  ufeful ;  of  which  no  tree  affords  any  com- 
parable to  the  wood  of  the  larch  (pinus  larix, 
Lin.),  according  to  the  hiftorical  teftimony  of  it 
now  largely  difplayed  in  the  writings,  and  confirm- 
ed by  the  recent  and  prefent  praftices  of  many  in 
North  and  South  Britain. 

This  wood,  fo  little  known  to  the  modern  world 
in  general,  was  every  thing  to  the  ancients;  fo 
much  fo  that  its  unlimited  ufe  has  caufed  a  fcarcity, 
and  almofl  a  total  reduction  of  it  every  where  but 
in  mountainous  inland  diflrifts ;  from  whence  it  can- 
not be  conveyed  for  ufe.  The  Greeks,  the  Ro- 
mans, and  the  old  world  in  general,  preferred  it 
for  all  ufeful  and  great  purpofes :    and   now   the 

Ruffians^ 


524  NOTES    AND 

Rnjfians,  a  new  people,  bringing  it  with  great  la- 
bour from  Siberia  to  Archangel,  build  their  {hips  of 
war  with  Larch-wood, 

Some  of  the  modern  notices  of  the  larch  are  here 
mentioned,  with  the  defire  that  Doftor  Anderfon^s 
third  volume  of  EJ/ays  on  Agriculture  be  confulted  on 
the  fubjecl,  wherein  he  treats  of  the  very  extenfive 
ufefulnefs  and  value  of  the  timber,  with  the  proper 
attentions  for  propagating  the  larch  in  Britain,  efpe- 
cially  the  praftices  of  North  Britain — their  methods, 
fuccefs  and  profits  experienced  at  this  time. 

Mr.  Young  in  his  Eastern  Tour,  gives  fome  par- 
ticulars of  the  cultivation  and  fuccefs  in  England ; 
but  Dodlor  Anderfon*s  EJfays  are  full  of  the  qualities 
of  the  wood  of  the  larch,  and  methods  of  railing 
it,  with  the  great  profit  arifing  from  plantations  of 
it — even  when  very  young. 

It  is  the  quickefl  growing  tree.  In  England  a 
Mr.  Fellows  had  a  plantation  of  Scotch  Jirs,  of  38 
years  growth  :  on  the  fame  land  he  had  larch  trees 
of  only  3 1  years  growth,  as  large  as  the  Jirs, 

An  old  gravel  pit  was  planted  with,  fpruce Jir  and 
larch,  in  alternate  rows.  The  larch  trees  are  6  to 
12  feet  high,  when  the  fpruce  are  but  2  feet  on  a 
medium^, 

A  large 


INTIMATIONS. 


5^^5 


A  large  plantation  of  many  acres,  a  poor  gravel- 
ly land,  containing  Scotch  and fprnce  Jirs  and  larches^ 
at  1 6  years  growth  in  fquares  of  lo  feet,  are  worth 
— the  Scotch  firs     .     .     2s.  6d.  each, 

the  fpruce  firs     .     .     Z  ''  ^ 

the  larch  .     .     .     .     4:6. 

At  10  feet  there  are  435  trees  an  acre.  The 
Scotch  at  2S.  6d.  come  to  ;^.54  7  6  flerling,  or  per 
acre  per  annum  £.-^  7  o. — The  fpruce  at  3s.  6d. 
to  £'^6  2  6  or  per  acre  per  annum  to  £.^  150. 
— The  larch  at  4s.  6d.  to  ^^.97  17  6  or  per  annum 
£.6  1  o  fterling  ;  exclufive  of  thinnings.  In  what 
other  way  can  ;^.6  flerling  be  made  of  an  acre, 
without  rifque,  and  almofl  without  expenfe? — A 
cafe  is  then  put, 

Suppofe  5  acres  of  larch  planted  every  year ;  at 
the  end  of  16  or  17  years,  five  acres  will  be  yearly 
cut  down,  value  £-500  fterling :  from  w4iich  day, 
a  regular  produce  of  £'S^^  ^  J^^^  ^^  gained  out  of 
100  acres  of  land.  If  let  to  a  tenant,  thefe  ico 
acres  produce  ;C*4°  ^  7^^"  >  ^^^^  '^  planted  they 
yield  £'S^o  a  year — what  an  amazing  difference! 

Again,  fuppofe  a  fingle  acre  planted  yearly  :  after 
18  or  20  years  to  cut,  yearly,  j^.ioo  fterling  a  year 
from  only  20  acres,  which  if  let,  would  be  but  jT.S 
a  year.     How  beneficial  a  condu(5^. 

But 


^26  NOTES    AND 

But  larch  would  fell  for  more  than  the  firs,  by 
the  foot ;  being  in  every  refpe^l  more  valuable — and 
of  the  many  excellent  qualities  of  larch,  fee  much 
in  Doctor  Anderfori's  third  volume  of  EJfays  on  Agri- 
culture ;  efpecially  attend  to  his  detail  of  the  method 
of  propagating  it,  as  praftifed  in  Scotland,  where 
millions  of  trees  are  now  raifed  from  feeds  in  nurfe- 
ries  and  difperfed  about  the  country  at  a  low  price. 

Moreover  thg.  larch  is  very  ornamental,  grows 
freely  in  all  foils  and  lituations — in  building  it  is 
preferred  for  strength  and  durability;  it  grows 
straight  and  is  excellent  for  piles,  lading  many  hun- 
dred years  put  to  that  ufe  ;  as  in  Venice. — In  Jhi?igles 
it  is  durable  and  very  excellent  as  it  is  in  log-houfes 
built  by  the  Ruffians,  as  recommended  by  Admiral 
Gregg  on  a  vifit  to  his  friends  in  Scotland.  Sawed 
into  fcantling  it  is  at  firfl  white,  and  on  2  or  3  years 
expofure  turns  of  a  dark  colour,  is  clofe  grained 
with  the  grain  filled  up  clofe  and  is  firm  and  fmooth. 
Staves  of  it  are  preferred  for  making  calks.  It 
faws  into  broad  and  long  planks  and  boards.  The 
timber  is  very  durable  in  the  ground — takes  a  fine 
polifli — nor  flirinks  nor  warps.  The  trees  are  ge- 
nerally planted  in  Britain  and  Switzerland.  It  is 
readily  trained  in  a  crooked  growth  for  fliip  timber. 

In  Scotland  there  are  larches  ^^  years  old,  which 
are  120  feet  high,   34^  feet  diameter,  and  contain 

no 


INTIMATIONS.  527 

110  folid  feet  of  wood  in  the  trunks.  Even  young 
larch  is  very  durable,  though  of  the  quickeft 
growth. — The  medium  growth  of  a  plantation  of 
larches,  in  8  years,  was  above  20  feet  in  height, 
and  they  were  6  to  9  inches  when  planted.  The 
fame  plants  when  12  years  old  have  increafed  in 
height  34  to  ;^6  feet, 

Tht  feeds  and  the  plants  are  to  be  had  from  Scot- 
land  in  any  quantities. — It  is  befl  to  get  feeds  and 
plants  from  thence,  as  they  cultivate  the  pinus  larix, 
Lin.  the  true  Italian  larix  of  the  ancients,  the  qua- 
lities whereof  arc  fo  well  known,  whereas  the  Ame- 
rican larch,  fecmingly  diiferent,  has  fcarcely  at  all 
been  experienced. 

Whilft  the  plants  and  feeds  are  expe£ted  from 
Scotland,  choofe  an  acre  to  5  acres,  that  may  be 
yearly  increafed  to  other  one  or  5  acres,  to  be  ap- 
plied as  above. — Clean  and  cultivate  thefe  acres  per- 
fectly, in  a  fallow  manured ;  or  rather  in  cleaning 
and  jhaded  fallG'-JO' crops,  for  deftroying  all  means  of 
'iveeds  growing  and  fouling  the  ground — then  fov/ 
and  propagate  the  larch  for  univerfal  purpofcs,  fuel 
alone  excepted. 

In  a  word,  Mr.  Anderfon  aifures  us  that  the 
larch  is  now  univerfally  preferred  for  plantations — 
that  its  good  qualities  are  indeed  fo  numerous  and 

fo 


528  NOTES    AND 

fo  excellent,  that  they  need  only  be  known  to  oc- 
cafion  its  being  propagated  beyond  any  other  tree 
whatever,  in  our  climate.  "  I  dare  hardly  even  to 
mention  thefe  qualities,  left  I  be  accufed  of  exag- 
geration, though  the  proofs  (continues  Mr.  Ander- 
ibn)  that  afcertain  them  are  irrefillibly  ftrong." 
Wherever  introduced  it  grows  fo  freely^ — is  io 
healthy  and  beautiful  in  leaf ;  fo  ornamental  when  co- 
vered with  bloffoms,  fo  elegant  in  form,  that  it  in- 
flantly  becomes  a  favourite  with  thofe  who  plant  it. 
Then  its  value  is  immenfe,  for  ufeful  purpofes — com- 
pared with  oak,  it  is  twice  as  fpeedy  as  oak  in 
growth,  and  where  a  fence  was  partly  of  oak,  part- 
ly of  larch,  the  oak  rails  had  yielded  to  time,  when 
the  larch  continued  found  many  years  after. 

0  K  R  A. 

In  a  communication  frora'^Elias  Boudinot,  Efq, 
I  receive  the  following  particulars  of  the  okra  plant. 

Mr.  Boudinot  had  been  informed  by  a  gentleman 
of  the  Weft  Indies,  that  the  planters  of  tafte,  there, 
life  a  drink  made  in  imitation  of  the  cofteeberry 
drink,  calling  it  alfo  coffee  or  okra  coffee,  made  of 
okra  feeds,  and  prefer  it  to  the  coffeeberry  drink ; 
■which  excited  his  attention  to  okra,  and  he  culti- 
vated it  to  a  confiderable  extent  in  the  way  of  ex- 
periment.    It  furpaffcd  his  expectation  made  as  the 

coffeeberry 


INTIMATIONS.  529 

coiTeeberry  is  made  into  a  drink  called  okra  coffee  ; 
and  it  was  very  generally  preferred  by  Grangers  to 
the  cofFeeberry  coiFee. 

Accordinof  to  Mr.  Boudinot  okra  feeds  are  to  be 
drilled  in  rows  36  inches  apart,  and  18  inches  in 
the  rows ;  thinning  the  plants  when  four  inches  high 
to  one  or  two  plants.  Prefer  a  rich  mellow  loam, 
plowed  deep  early  in  the  fpring,  and  again  early  in 
May — then  harrow,  plant,  hoe  and  cultivate  a5 
maize  is  treated. 

The  green  pods  are  foon  fit  for  culinary  purpofes, 
chiefly  in  foups ;  for  which  when  they  begin  to 
harden,  they  become  unfit. 

About  the  middle  of  October  cut  down  the 
plants,  and  when  dry,  thrafli  the  feeds  out,  taking 
care  that  the  pods  be  not  expofed  to  rain  after  be- 
ing cut  down  and  before  thrallied.  The  feeds 
weigh  561b.  a  bufliel ;  which  at  30  bufliels  an  acre 
that  Mr.  Boudinot  thinks  may  be  produced,  would 
amount  to  near  17001b.  but  fay  ]5oolb.  of  okra 
coffee,  at  12  cents  per  lb.  it  would  give  18000 
cents  or  180  dollars  per  acre.  The  plant  alfo  is 
ufed  in  foups  as  well  as  the  green  pods>  and  is  very 
wholefome  and  palatable. 

Doctor  Wright,  fpcaking  of  the  Weft:  India  okra, 

fhibifcus  efculenius)  fays,    the  pods   are  gathered 

L  1  green, 


53©  NOTES    AND 

green,  cut  into  pieces,  dried,  and  boiled  in  broths 
and  foups.  It  is  the  chief  ingredient  in  the  pepper- 
pot  of  the  Well  Indies,  much  celebrated  as  a  rich 
olJa. 


Sl^RUP  FROM  WATER-MELONS, 

It  is  faid,  a  great  portion  of  the  fyrup  ufed  as  a 
fweetener  in  Ruilia  is  produced  from  the  pulpy  fweet 
part  of  "water-melons.  I  am  now  favoured  with  a 
fmall  quantity  of  the  fyrup  of  water-melon ;  half  a 
pint  of  which  was  obtained  in  Philadelphia,  by  gra- 
dually boiling  the  flrained  pulp  and  juice  of  a  melon 
that  weighed  141b. 

Melons  growing  at  5-I-  by  5^  feet  apart,  are 
1433  plants  on  an  acre:  thefe  bearing  two  melons 
of  141b.  each,  yield  4oooclb.  of  melons,  1433 
pints  of  fyrup;  which  at  10  cents  would  come  to 
143  dollars,  for  an  acre's  produce. 

It  is  alfo  faid  that  the  peafants  in  the  fouthern 
parts  of  RulTia,  ufe  little  other  fugar  than  that 
which  is  obtained  from  water-melons.  The  fample 
given  to  me  is  a  very  neat  well  flavored  fyrup,  of 
the  confidence  of  melafles,  but  of  a  lighter  colour, 
nearer  to  tiiat  of  honey. 

Here 


INTIMATIONS.  53I 

Here  are  flattering  circmnftances  to  induce  expe- 
riments that  may  prove  how  eafily  the  country 
family  may  become  independent  of  foreign  countries 
for  fweets  of  the  clafs  of  fugars,  and  at  a  very  cheap 
rate.  The  fyrup  it  is  fuppofed  may  be  granulated 
into  fugar,  or  with  much  eafe  made  into  a  /agar 
candy. 

The  hufbandman's  chief  crop  for  giving  hira 
income  in  money  is  wheat ;  for  which  he  labours, 
in  fevcral  plowings,  and  gains  nothing  from  his 
ground  during  a  year  of  fallow  ;  unlefs  he  may  be 
one  of  the  few  who  adopt  the  profitable  courfe  of 
a  fallow  crop  or  a  crop  produced  whilft  the  ground 
is  under  a  fallow.  After  all  the  lofs  of  time,  and 
expenfe  of  labour  with  hazards,  the  acre  of  wheats 
that  proud  article,  may  put  eight  or  ten  dollars  in 
the  pocket ;  of  which  a  part  goes  to  the  fhop  for 
fugar  and  melafles.  But  now,  fuppofe  the  acre  of 
melon  fyrup  fhould  yield  but  half  of  the  above  cal- 
culation ;  it  then  would  give  the  farmer  or  (which 
may  be  better)  his  wife  above  70  dollars — Are  not 
thcfe  irrefillible  motives,  impelling  to  make  the 
trial! 

The  like,  in  part,  may  be  applied  to  the  article 
ccffee  from  the  ckra  plant.  Even  take  only  a  fourth 
part  of  the  calculation,  near  360  pints  of  fyrup  at 
10  cents,    give  near    36    dollars   produce,   almoft 

without 


532  NOTES    AND,    SzC. 

without  coft,  and  four  times  as  much  as  the  wheat 
income ! — Withal,  ivheat  greatly  impoveriflies  the 
hufbandmau's  ground  :  when  meloiu  cover  and  fhel- 
ter  it,  (o  as  to  prevent  weeds  growing  and  running 
to  feed,  but  they  leave  the  ground  mellow  and  in  a 
good  ftate  of  fallow. 

*'  The  Spirit  of  Commerce  renders  men  avaricious 
"  and  Jeljijh  :  atzd  a  People  demoralized  ought  to  be 
"  brought  back  to  agriculture  :  for^  Commerce  feeds 
'^  the  Pajfions  ;  Agriculture  calms  them.** 


FINIS. 


{     533     ) 

Receipt  for  the  Parmefan  or  Lodian  Cbeefe. 

The  fize  of  thefe  cheefes  varies  from  60  to  i3olbs, 
and  depends  confiderably  on  the  number  of  cows  ia 
each  dairy. 

"  During  the  heat  of  fummer  cheefe  is  made  every 
day,  but  in  the  cooler  months  milic  will  keep  longer, 
and  cheefe  is  made  every  other  day.     The  fumm.er 
cheefe  which  is  the  befl  is  made  of  the  evening  milk 
after  having  been  ikiramed  in  the  morning  and  at 
noon,  mixed  with  the  morning   milk  after  having 
been  Jkimmed  at  noon.     Both  kinds  of  milk  are 
poured  together  into  a  copper  caldron,  capable  of 
holding  about  130  gallons,   of  the  fhape  of  an  in- 
verted  bell,  and  fufpended  on  the  arm  of  a  lever, 
fo  as  to  be  moved  off  and  on  the  fire  at  pleafure. 
In  the  caldron  the  milk  is  gradually  heated  to  the 
temperature  of  120  degrees:    it   is  now  removed 
from  the  fire  and  kept  quiet  for  5  or  6  minutes. 
When  all  internal  motion  has  ceafed,   the  rennet  is 
adaed— this  fubftancc  is  compofed  of  the  Horaach 
of  a  calf,  fermented  together  with  wheaten  meal 
and  fiilt — and    the   m.ethod  of  ufing  it  is,  to  tie  a 
piece  of  the  fize  of  an  hazle  nut  in  a  rag,  and  rteep 
it  in  the  milk,  fqucezing  it  from  time  to  time.     In 
a   ftiort   time  a  fufncient  quantity  of  the  rennet 
pafles  through  the  bag  into  the  milk,  which  is  now 
LI  2  to 


534  RZCEIFT    FOR    THE    PATs^MESAN 

to  be  well  ilirred,  and  afterwards  left  at  refl  td  co- 
agulate. 

In  about  an  hour  the  coagulation  is  complete,  and 
then  the  milk  is  again  put  over  the  fire,  and  raifcd 
to  a  temperature  of  about  145  degrees.  During  all 
the  time  it  is  heating,  the  mafs  is  briikly  agitated 
till  it  feparates  in  fraall  lumps.  Part  of  the  whev  is 
then  taken  out  and  a  few  pinches  of  fafFron  are 
added  to  the  remainder  in  order  to  colour  it.  When 
the  curd  is  thus  broken  fufficiently  fraall.  nearly  the 
whole  of  die  whey  is  taken  cut,  and  two  pails  of 
cold  water  are  poured  in;  the  temperature  is  then 
lowered,  fo  as  to  enable  the  dairy  man  to  coUecl  the 
curd  by  palling  a  cloth  beneath  it,  and  gathering  it 
up  at  the  corners.  The  curd  is  now  pafTed  into  a 
frame  of  wood  like  a  bulhel  without  a  bottom, 
placed  on  a  (oYid  table,  and  covered  by  a  round 
piece  of  wood  with  a  great  (lone  on  the  top.  In  the 
courfe  of  the  night  it  cools,  affumes  a  firm  confid- 
ence and  parts  with  its  whey.  The  next  day  one 
fide  is  rubbed  v%ith  fait,  and  the  fucceeding  day  the 
cheefe  is"  turned,  and  the  other  fide  rubbed  in  the 
fame  manner.  This  alternate  faking  of  each  fide  is 
praclifed  for  about  40  days.  After  this  period  the 
outer  crufl  of  the  cheefe  is  pared  off,  the  frefli  fur- 
face  is  varniflied  with  linfeed-oil  :  the  convex  fide  is 
coloured  red,  and  the  cheefe  is  fie  for  fale."      An- 

7iales  de  Chem'ie. 

Certain 


OR    LODIAN    CHEESE. 


535 


*'  Certain  it  is  that  in  Peiinfylvania  we  do  not  make 
good  cheefes  of  the  Chefhire  or  Glouceftcr  qualities : 
it  is  probable  however  that  we  could  make  good 
Parinefan. 

That  we  lliould  fail  in  the  inferior,  and  yet  fucceed 
in  the  fuperior  may  feera  ftrange,  but  the  probability 
arifes  from  the  circuraflance  that  Pennfylvania  better 
agrees  in  climate  with  the  country  of  the  fuperior,  the 
northern  diviiion  of  Italy,  than  wieh  the  country  of 
the  inferior,  England. 

Of  this  truth,  there  cannot  be  a  better  teilimony 
than  what  is  laid  in  a  volume  of  Young's  Annals,  by 
Zanga,  lefldent  in  London,  from  the  court  of  Turin, 
that  the  wheat  harved  of  the  INIilancfe,  where  the  Par- 
mefan  cheefes  are  made,  comes  on  about  the  twenty- 
lixth  of  June,  but  a  week  before  that  of  Pennfylvania; 
whereas  the  harvefl:  of  England  begins  in  no  part  earlier 
than  Auguft,  and  continues  northerly  through  all  the 
autumnal  months.  And  from  greater  refemblance  in 
climate  may  we  not  infer  the  greater  refemblance  in 
the  animal  and  vegetable  productions  ? 

It  is  moreover  a  philofophical  opinion  that  the  natu- 
ral produces  of  a  warmer,  are  generally  more  highly  con- 
cofted  and  matured,  than  tliofe  of  a  colder  climate. 

And  in  fa^t,  by  a  curious  analyfis  lately  made  at  Paris, 
of  twenty-two  pounds  of  the  v/hcat  of  dilterent  coun- 
tries, that  feparable  portion  of  the  grain,  which  is  the 
alimentary  principle,  abounded  more  in   that  of  the 

Pennfylvania 


536  RECEIPT    FOR    THE    PARMESAN,    ScC. 

Pennfylv^ania  growth  than  in  the  reft,  one  of  them  ex- 
cepted ;  that  one  fharing  with  it,  the  principle  in  an 
equal  degree  :  And  the  London  bakers  have  difccver- 
cd  that  the  American  flour  goes  conCderably  further 
in  the  making  of  bread  than  the  Englifh. 

As  favourable  to  this  general  opinion,  it  has  been 
affirmed  in  Devon  {hire  that  the  beef  of  the  French 
cattle,  which  have  been  fometimes  brought  over  into 
that  country  for  the  breed,  is  more  efleemed  there 
than  their  own.  And  that  great  traveller,  whom  Mr, 
Gibbon  wifhed  had  vifited  every  quarter  of  the  earth, 
thought,  w^hen  here  a  few  years  lince,  that  American 
beef  had  more  nutriture  flill  than  that  of  his  own 
country,  France. 

From  thefe  confiderations  and  afluraed  fa£h  I  ven- 
ture to  Tend  you  for  infertion  in  the  intended  new 
edition  of  your  very  ufeful  book,  a  receipt  for  making 
the  Parmefan  cheefe,  recommended  beyond  all  others, 
from  the  celebrated  work  in  which  it  is  found,  the 
AnnaJci  de  Chcmie  conducted  by  Cbaptal,  and  wherein 
the  directions  are  minutely  plain  and  may  be  very 
eafily  followed. 

it  is  hardly  worth  noticing  that  without  fome  ac- 
companying obfervations,  as  affording  the  probable 
grounds  of  fuccefs,  no  experiments  whatever  may  be 
cxpefted  to  be  made  from  the  receipt.'* 


Explanation 


"^ 


Library 
N.  C.  Stiite   College 


INSERT  FOLDOUT  HERE 


INSERT  FOLDOUT  HERE 


Explanation  of  the  Cuts. 

PLATE     I. 

A  Farm-yard,  homeftead  and  buildings ;  explained 
in  the  work,  page  74  to  76. 

PLATE     IL 

Fi<y.  L  A  family  laboratory,  alfo  mentioned  in  page  78. 
n  The  tripartite   brewing   kettle.     0  A  boiler,     p 
Fire-place  :  from  whence  fmoke  to  the  meat  above. 
q  Beams  fufpending  meat,  in  fmoking  it.     5  A  re- 
gifter,   open  when  the  fmoke  is  to  pafs  through  the  . 
chimney ;  Ihut  when  to  be  thrown  into  the  room, 
amongft  the  meat  at  6;   an  aperture  through  which 
fmoke  paiTes  among  the  meat,   when  5  is  Ihut  clofe  ; 
and  {hut,  the  extent  of  the  thicknefs  of  the  mafony 
there,   when    the   fmoke   is    to    pafs   through    the 
chimney  at  the  top.     In  this  houfe,  meat  may  be 
cut  up,  falted  and  fmoked :  lard  and  tallow  tried: 
candles   and  foap,   made :   wafhing,    ironing,    fpin- 
ning,    carding,    dying,     brewing,     purifying    fait, 
fcalding  milk  utenfils  with  water  palling  through 
the  wall  from  the  boiler.  Sec.  be  performed.     Green 
hiccory  gives  the  fweeteft   and  bed  fmoke  :  fuperior 
to  dry  hiccory   or    locufl:,  afli,  oak ;  and   to   corn 
flalks ;  all  having  been  tried  by  me  in  drying  raalr. 


r  I  - 


EXPLANATION 


'  Fig.  II.  Ground-floor  of  a  Pennfylvania  barn,  as  de- 
figned  by  a  Chefler  county  farmer,  a  Horfe  lia- 
ble, having  one  fmall  and  two  larger  doors.     It  is 

14  by  35  feet. b  Store  cattle,  in  ftalls :  lize  60 

by    13    feet,    with  two   doors. c  Beef-cattle. 

This  lide  of  the  houfe^  if  at  a  bank  cut  down,  has 
only  one  end-door.     The  fize  of  the  fhelter  44  by 

1 7  feet. d  Chaff  room ;  having  a  cheft  for 

horfe-feed ;  another  with  cattle  meal. e  A  long 

paffage  to  feed  from,  60  by  5  feet,  has  a  box  to 

chop  potatoes  in. /Short  paffage  35   by  ^\ 

feet,  with  a   trough  for  mixing  food  ;    and  a  fmall 

door  at  the  furthermofl  end. g  Dung  and  litter 

yard. h  A  gate. /  Door  into  potato  vault ; 

under  the  bridge  which  paffes  up  to  the  thrafliing 
and  grain  floor.  This  fide  of  the  houfe  when  againfl: 
a  cut  down  bank,  has  one  only  door  for  the  beeves 
to  pafs,  at  one  end  of  the  houfe  ;  and  the  width 
of  their  apartment  is  therefore  wider  than  for  the 
flore  cattle. 

Fig.  III.  Ground  floor  of  a  propofed  barn,  flze  of 
fig.  II.  The  fl:alls  6  feet  wide ;  each  holding  two 
grown  cattle.  It  has  five  fide  doors,  4  feet  wide, 
on  each  front ;  which  gives  one  door  to  4  cattle  or 
1  fl:alls.  The  paffage  is  here  wider  than  needs  be, 
being  9  feet.  The  flails  are  13  feet  deep.  In  a 
roomy  paflage  roots  are  cut,  meal  flored,  &c.  be- 
fides  having  the  racks,  and  feeding  from  thence. 

a 


OF    THE    CUTS.  3 

a  b  Area  of  the  bridge,  if  there  is  no  bank  ; 

and  it  is  bed  to  give  it  great  breadth,  for  admitting 
of  a  large  vault,  and  aiTuring  fafety  to  the  teams. 
ITiis  vault  is  15  by  3^  feet  the  width  of  the  barn. 

c  Door  into  the  vault.     Roots  are  let  down, 

into  it,  through  a  funnel  at  the  top  of  the  bridge. 
It  houfes  near  20  cattle  more  than  the  Chefter  coun- 
ty houfe. 

Fig.  IV.  Elevation  over  fig.  3. 

Two  Ice-Hcuses  se&ed. 

No.  I.  is  a  fe(flion  of  the  ice-houfes  built  at  Wye,  as 
mentioned  in  page  304,  which  kept  ice  perfedly  : 
but  being  only  a  cube  of  9  feet  of  ice  the  mafs  was  but 
730  folid  feet  ;  and  yet  the  houfe  built  to  flielter  it 
from  fun  and  rain  was  neceflarily  1 3  feet  fquare. — In- 
ftead  of  fuch  a  houfe  and  pit,  it  is  recommended  to 
build, 

No.  II.  Under  ground  one  half;  above  ground  the 
other  half;  5 1  and  5!-  are  11  feet,  the  pen  of  logs 
or  timber  ;  and  1 1  feet  fquare  ;  giving  a  cube  mafs 
of  ice  n  feet,  or  1331  feet;  abundantly  fufEcient 
for  free  ufe  in  any  family  ; — and  yet  this  house  is 
but  1 1  feet  fquare.  « 

a.  a.  The  level  of  the  ground,  c.  Open  in  all  feafons, 
for  giving  vent  to  fleam  ;  the  eaves  alfo  are  open ; 
• for. 

Steam 


4  EXPLANATION 

Steam  Ascends— Never  Descends. 

The  mafs  of  loofe  dry  draw  covering  the  ice,  pre- 
vents all  acceffion  of  heat  on  the  furface  of  the  ice, 
but  admits  of  a  conftant  afcent  of  heat  with  fleam  or 
vapour  from  the  Pit. 

/.  /.  Are  vents  nearly  the  length  of  the  roof;  and 
other  vents  are  the  eaves,  and  end-door.  Between 
the  logs  and  the  bank,  all  around  from  the  bottom 
to  a  foot  or  two  above  ground,  have  found  dry 
ftraw  filled  in  ;  for  defending  the  ice  from  a  conti- 
nuance of  raoillure,  at  the  fame  time  that  the  heat 
afcends  and  carries  oif  the  vapour.  Ice  can  no  how 
be  kept  from  thawing — Full  one  fourth  of  ice  ftored, 
thaws  before  the  feafon  for  cooling  liquors  arrives. 
June,  July,  Auguft,  and  the  fore  part  of  Septem- 
ber are  months  for  applying  it  to  liquors.  At  the 
bottom  of  the  pit  are  logs  covering  the  area.  On 
ihefe  lay  faggots  or  brufli  :  under  them  is  a  fink  6 
inches  deep. 

When  family  provifions  are  flored,  let  it  be  nearly  in 
contact  with  the  m.afs  of  ice.  Fifh  are  not  to  be 
fcaled,  nor  opened.  In  a  .very  hoi  time  in  July, 
a  fiih  entire,  weighing  near,-6o!b,  was  I|id  on  the 
bed  of  ice,  faving  that  a  fraall  portion  fl^^catter- 
ing  flraw  prevented  it  from  quite  touchin55''t'he  ice  ; 
and  every  day  it  was  turned :  on  the  eighth  day  it 
was  drefTed,  and  was  perfcflly  fredi  and  looked  as 


v  ^ 


J^injji, 


';j 


J I 


^J%AM. 


^c 


Ul—i 


4^ 


T'n/ .  \'JZf. 


■\j v^ 


M»^%^c. 


OF    THE    CUTS. 


if  jufl  caught.     Ice  gives  but  a  little  of  an  atmof- 
phere. 

m.  m.  Are  covers  on  the  flraw,  agaiufl:  rain. 


PLATE     III. 

Fig.  I.  II.  Brewing  veiTel,  40  inches  long :  20  broad: 

24  deep. a  Divilion  1 3  inches  deep  :  b  9  inches : 

c  2  inches.  The  dotted  lines  are  where  the  perfo- 
rated moveable  bottoms  are  placed.  In  a  is  the 
'waier  or  wort ;  h  contains  the  malt :  and  into  c  the 
warm  water  is  pumped  up  from  a  and  paiTe^ 
through  ;  and  often  returned  on  the  malt  wafiies  out 

its  fubflance.     The  liquor  is  then  boiled  in  a. 

a  A  imall  pump,  mine  is  of  metal.  Mr.  M'Cauley, 
Front-ftreet  Philadelphia,  made  my  brewing  veiTel 
of  copper  ;  the  fliape  of  fig.  1.  Saying  that  copper 
flieets  cannot  be  bent  angularly.  At  the  bottom  is 
a  cock,  in  one  fide  of  the  vefTcI. 

Fig.  III.  A  root  Aeamer.  a  Brick  flove,  having  a 
pot  or  kettle  fixed  in  it.  Over  the  pot  is  a  hogshead^ 
but  or  cajk  ;  or  an  half  of  either,  open  at  top,  with 
the  bottom  full  of  inch  holes,  for  letting  the  fleam 
up  amongfl:  the  roots.  Potatoes,  &:c.  are  to  be 
walhed  clean  in  balkets,  or  otiierwifc,  before 
fleaminq:  them. 


'o 


4 


M  m  Fig.  IV. 


6  EXPLANATION 

Fig.  IV.  Clover  ripple.  Wheels  1 6  inches  diameter: 
box  1 5  inches  deep  :  handles  3  feet  long,  22  inches 
ap^rt :  ripple  1 3  inches  long. 

Fig.  V.  Bottom  of  the  clover-feed  box,  mentioned  page 
SS,  \i'ith.  its  diagonal  holes  and  divillons. 

Fig.  M.  A  ihim  blade  or  hoc,  for  flony  land,  a  a  22 

inches  long bb  14  inches  wide,  with  mortifes 

for  fide  pieces,  and  a  large  one  for  a  Cieet  or  flan- 
chion.  A  ftrip  of  iron  or  board  is  occafionally  fix- 
ed on  each  fide,  for  edging  up  a  little  earth  to 
the  plants.  The  middle  raortife  is  to  be  long,  for 
receiving  a  broad  and  ftrong  flbeet  or  flanchion  that 
v.iil  carry  the  blade  without  aid  from  the  fide  pieces, 
v.htn  cccafion. 

Fi'^.  VII.  A  fhira  blade :  fuch  as  I  ufed  in  ground  clear 
of  (lone  and  gravel ;  gently  convex  to  give  it 
ftrength,  befides  that  it  was  fubftantial  at  its  back. 
Its  fide  pieces  were  of  iron,  welded  to  the  blade. 

Fig.  VIII.  BeJj  of  wheat  quite  fiat,  as  they  appear 
on  fowing  and  covering  wheat,  whiul  maize  is  on 
the  fame  ground,  ripening.  Alfo  rid^cs  of  wheat 
fown,  as  in  common,  after  cutting  cS"  the  top?  of 
the  maize  plants. 


Fic; 


^lale. 


IP', 


,2  ^/^ 


ith^-^ 


10  ^   ^/ 


'7p 


T 


INSERT  FOLDOUT  HERE 


OF    THE    CUTS.  Jr 

Fig.  8.  Treading  floor;  with  horfes  running,  promif- 
cuoufly. 
9.  Improved  floor  ;  with  bam  in  the  middle. 

10.  Mr.  Singleton's  floor,  and  houfe  in  the  middle. 

11.  Cattle  fl:alls.  N°  B.  according  to  Mr.  Bake- 
well.  N°  S.  according  to  Mr.  S.  a  Yorkfliire 
gentleman. 

PLATE     IV. 

Plan  and  Elevation  of  a  country  habitation^ 
according  to  page  279,  of  the  work. 

PLATE     V. 

Fig.  I.  Plan  of  a  cottage,  with  its  yards,  garden,  and 
outbuildings. 

A.  Front-yard;  80  feet  front  (though  fliortened  in 
the  drawing).  It  contains,  i  the  cottage ;  2  the 
cowhoufe ;  3  manure  and  woodflied ;  4  the  ne- 
ceflliry  ;   5  fow  and  pigfty. 

B.  Back-yard  80  feet  long  (fhortened  as  above) ;  20 
or  30  feet  wide. 

C.  Garden  80  feet,  Cfo  fliortened)  by  136  feet.  The 
whole  ground  in  yards  and  garden,  is  about  ~ih 
of  an  acre. 


If 


i  EXPLANATION    OF    THE    CUTS. 

If  two  cottages  were  to  be  built,  they   fliould 

be  both  in  one,  and  have  a  ftack  of  chimneys  in 

the  middle,  for  both  cottages. 

Fig.  II.  Upon  a  larger  fcale  fhews  plans  of  the  lower 

floor,  of  the  bed-rooms  upflairs — and  a  front 

view  of  the  houfe. 


INDEX. 


INDEX. 


A. 


A 


PACE* 


.FTERMATH,  of  timothy,  preferable  to  a 

fecond  mowing             .             .              .             .  14 
Agriculture,  its  tendency  in  promoting  domeftic 

peace  and  happinefs,  motto           .  '>  53^ 

a  propofed  ftate  fociety  of               .  356 

American  crops           .             .            ,             .  29  to  48 

Appoitionment  of  the  expenfes  and  value  of  crops  190 

Apricot  trees  made  to  bear  fruit         ,          .           .  509 
Arms  and  ammunition,  the  means  of  obtaining 

them  at  home               ....  259 

Afles,  feveral  kinds               .              ,              .  ,         469 
Attentions  Ingrolfed  by  tobacco,  injure  hufban- 

dry  in  general                ....  155 

Aquamaque  bean,  a  manure             •             .  .          46 

Ages  of  cattle  and  ftock              .             .             .  131 

B. 

Bacon,  its  weight,  green  and  cured             .  .         405 

cured  a  la  Pocock         .            .             .  404,  406 

fmokcd  in  a  houle             .             .             .  78 

Barley,  common  feed  for  horfes  in  Afia  and  Egypt  1 34. 

Barns  in  Pcnnfylvania,  their  form              .              .  ibid, 

propofed  on  aiiother  defign                .  .             85 

Baths  and  bathing  highly  beneficial  .         296  to  299 

Beans,  feeded  with  a  fimple  drill             .              .  99 

in  a  fallow  crop            .              .              .  35  to  4» 

dwarf  and  runners              .              .              .  ibid. 

American,  their  qualities             .             •  44 

N  n 


INDEX 


FASE. 


Beaos,  diflance  of  rows  in  a  fallow  crop  .  r» 

Beds  of  wheat,  how  made         .  .  •         oc,  21? 

better  than  ridges  .  .  ,  214 

lying  north  and  fouth  or  eail  and  weft  .  219 

Beef,  pickled  .  .  .  ,  404. 

according  to  Pocock  ,  .  .  ibid. 

dried  for  fiamily  \ife         .  .  .  .        406 

to  barrel,  for  the  market  .  ,  •437 

do.  in  hot  weather  .  .  .  440 

falted  hot,  by  Admiral  Knowles  .  .     442 

Beer,  in  a  folid  (late,  to  be  diffidved^occaflqnally         .      425 

homebrewed  recommended  .  .  74 

tripartite  brewing,  an  cafy  method  .  326 

^es,  in  lateral  boxes  ....  84 

^fnni  oil,  from  Sefamum         .  .  .         ,        ijSo 

Bilcuit,  to  make  ....  407, 

l^des  of  naaize,  boldly  ftripped  off  .  .         ^107 

Bpiling  houfe  .  .  .  .  .         8i. 

Bramble,  a  valuable  and  lingular  plant  .  489 

fence  .  .  .  .  ibid. 

Bread,  to  make  and  bake  .  .  .  409 

called  handy-cake,  or  potafb  .  .       411 

<f(  potatoes  ....  332 

Breeds,  of  cattle,  Iheep,  and  hogs         .         .  .         161 

of  horfes  .  .  .         .       23,  175, 

Brine,  of  full  ftrength  .  .  .  414 

Buckvt'heat,  plowed  in         .  .  .  6, 46,  59 

its  qualities  .  .  .  5^*  55, 

paftured  or  twice  cut  .  .  146 

fteltering  crop  to  clover,  5cc.  35,  54,  42 

its  ftraw  good  food  .  .  185 

Bugs,  or  chinches  to  deftroy,  .  .  414. 

Bnfhel  in  ufc,.  the  iize  .  .  .         .         19 

Butter,  to  make,  pot,  and  preferve  .  271  to  275 

the  quantity  from  cows  in  England  .  140 

from  a  Chinefe  cow  .  r  •         165 


1  N  t)  E  SC 

c. 

Cabbages,  whether  to  tranfplant  or  not  .  40,  400 

planted  in  the  ftep  of  maize  .        40,  432 

Calves,  to  rear  .  .  .  .  413 

Candles  to  make,  with  improved  tallow         .         .         419 

Carts,  with  one  horfe  or  ox  .  .  429,  430 

Carrots,  culture  and  application  .  .  474 

Ca,ftor  oil,  how  made  .  .  .         .  446 

Cattle,  pa  (lured  and  foiled;  kept  and  fattened  141 

fattened  in  France  with  great  fpeed  .  401 

food,  to  keep  and  to  fatten  them,  different  61 

food  boiled,  doubly  eflicacioUs  .  .        62 

food,  the  annual  expenditure         .         .         .63 

what  are  deemed  full  eaters  .  .  64 

houfed,  the  attendance  requifite  .  .         66 

watered,  and  then  ftroll  and  rub  .  74 

houfe  and  ftalls  .  .  .  .83 

kept,  or  fattened  in  winter  .  .  141 

ground,  the  quantity  requifite  per  annum      142,  144 

houfe,  for  fweating  to  fatten  quick  .  157 

age  in  which  they  fatten  beft  .  .         161 

fize  of  them  .  .  .  .161 

general  obfervatioos  on  them  .  161  to  172 

Cellar  windows,  when  to  be  open  or  (hut  .  302 

Cellars  unwholefome  .  .  .  .280 

Cement-floors,  to  make  .  .  .  521 

Chaff  from  cut-ftraw,  how  ufed  .  .  64 

Change  of  fpecies  .  .  .  .23 

of  feeds  ....  ibid. 

Charcoal,  a  non-condu<5tor  of  heat  .  .  309 

Cheefe,  to  make  it  .  .  .         448,451,452 

Chickens,  how  to  fatten  ...  78 

Chimnies  improved  ....  299 

Chinch  bug,  to  deftroy         .  .  .         .  414 


INDEX. 

rAGK. 

Circumference  kEown,  to  find  the  diameter             ,  loo 
Ci&ems,  for  family  uie             .             .            .  416 
Claj,  a  nisnure                 .             .             .             .  56 
Clover  and  laving  its  Heed                ...  85 
feed,  fow  on  buckwheat  in  July               .  7,  54 
on  rye,  &c.             ....  10 
c£iax  renewed             .             .             .  .           11 
with  orchard  grafs                 .               .  .13 
onfoitable  with  timothy              .              .  ibid, 
of  fowing  on  the  lame  ground  repeatedly  .          22 
injursd  by  worms  in  England          .             .  23 
in  Americaj  better  than  in  England          .  27 
in  entire  fields,  cheapens  bottom  lands  .         3  ( 
difference  between  lots  and  fields                 .  67 
fo^vn  from  a  box             .           .             .  .         86 
quantity  fown  per  acre                 .              .  ibid, 
method  of  faring  feed             .             .  86,  87 
when  fown,  beft  not  to  cover          .             .  92 
Macro's  method  of  fowing             .  •93 
Coal,  its  dull  made  into  maifes  for  fuel         .         .  194 
Commerce,  its  tendency  on  the  morals  of  a  peo- 
ple— motto              .              .              .  532 
its  evil  tendency              .             .  .402 
new  fources,  of  a  bad  tendency  to  the 

farmer         ....  309 

Compofts  of  manure,  made  on  head  lands             .  82 

Cookery,  cautions  to  be  obferved  in  it          .          .  342 

Cottagers  and  cottages,  thoughts  on  them             .  387 
Country  life,    more   amiable  than   commercial 

habits — moito               ....  402 

Courfes  of  crops  defined  (fee  Crops)           .  .             2 

Cows,  far  driven  injures  the  curd  and  milk          .  448 

of  China,  their  quahties              .               .  1 65 

Cow-boufes,  fize  and  conveniencies             .             •  81 

Cream  cheefe,  how  made             .             •              •  45  ^ 

Crops  in  orderly  rotation,  advantageous             .  2,  9 


INDEX. 

Crops,  EnglifK  old  courfes                 .             «  ,          ly 

do.       new  courfes               .             .  .21 

exhaufting  or  ameliorating                .  ,             22 

long  and  often  repeated  impovcrifh  land  .         24 

the  courfes  in  England             .             .  .             27 

in  America             .             .             .         .  29,  30 
many  in  fucceffion,  perfeded  by  each  a 

fingle  plowing !             .             ,             .  37»  3^ 
round  and  complete,  by  Young             .  46 
unabating  under  the  new  principles  .             47 
recurring  in  a  rotation  where  one  field  is  in 
meadow  or  hemp,  whilft  the  others  in- 
terchange            .             .             .         .  56,  70 
their  produds  eftimated             .             .  .           60 
the  quantities  expended  in  food  to  ftock  .         61 
of  a  particular  farm  eftimated             .  .          68 
Croffing  the  ftrain  in  breeding  ftock             .  .            23 
Curd,  how  made           ....  423,  450 
warmth  of  the  milk             .             .  .          449 

^• 

Dairy,  great  part  of  its  profits  are  from  fows  and 

pigs  kept  by  it              .             .             .  135 

marble  table  for  working  butter  on  it  .         275 

Defign,  of  a  grafs  farm  near  a  city             .  .              4 

Diameter  known,  to  find  the  circumference          .  100 

Diet,  in  rural  economy            .            .             .  330 

for  prifoners .            ,             .             .  .            510 

Diftillation,  improved              .              .             .  429 

Ditches,  eafily  made  ....        200 

Drank,  a  German  term  for  a  mixed  drink  6 1 ,  64,  122 

how  made             ...  64 

Dried  beef,  to  cure                 .             .             •  405*  4°^ 

Drill,  to  make,  eafJy,  for  beans,  &c.               .  99 

Ducks,  how  to  fatten             .             •              •  •           77 


I  M  D  1  X. 

FAGI. 

Dung  of  flieep  and  hogs  eftimated                .  .         65 

of  geefe,  when  houfed  and  littered  .            ibid, 

for  compofts,  made  on  head  lands         .  .          82 

kept  dry,  or  partialiy  wet               .  .              136 

dropt  in  pafturing  is  chiefly  loft             .  143 
enriched  by  the  qualities  of  the  food 

from  oil-cake,  is  doubly  rich          .  ,              1 60 

given  by  liveflock                   •             •  .           64 


Education  for  counti^  life             .              *  482,  493 

Eggs,  how  to  ktep        .            .             ,            .  424 

Employment,  the  beft  of  charities              .             .  465 

Exhaufters  of  foil  are  com  and  feeds             .  .         28 

Experiments,  method  of  regiftering  them         .  213,  221 

proving  the  hardinefs  of  maize         .  106 
advantageous  -when  made    in  the 

extreme               .               .  106,  10^ 

»              on  limeftone  and  gypfum  manures  408 
comparative,  between  broadcaft  and 

drilled,  on  various  crops,  by  Amos  477 

F. 

%t^  Fallow  crops,  a  ftring  of   them,  in  fucceflion,  ott 

one  plowing  each             .             .  .           37 

deep  plowed,  in  flufliing,  inripfoves  foil  .       239 

Fz^ows  in  maize  and  potatoes             .               ,  189 

propofed  under  garden  peas             .  .          38 

manured  by  Englifh  farniws        .         *  .         18 

fhadcd,  or  naked              .           .               .  18,   19 

the  intention  of  them  and  eflfed  on  ground  2 1 

treated  of  by  Forbes                 .               .  445 

crops  are  horfehoed  under  fhade               .  29 

in  America               .             .             .  32 

in  beans,  dwarf  or  runners            .  4a 


I  M  t}  B  X. 

Fallow  crops,  with  lliade  and  green  drefllng              .  45 

Farming,  its  principal  links             .             •             •  4^ 

Farms  in  Hanover,  with  the '  ftock  foiled.                .  69. 

in  grafs,  near  towns                 .             ♦  '4 

divided  in  the  Englifh  old  crops          .           .  17 

Farm-yard,  manure  and  management         .         118  to  133 

the  quantity  of  its  nianure  per  beaft  65 

with  its  offices  .  .  74  ^o  85 

as  managed  in  America  and  in  England  1 20 

Fattening  and  keeping  ftock,  the  difference           .  159 

the  materials  for  hogs              .               1.89  to  194 

cattle  in  England.             .              .  ^A^ 

do.  in  France             .             .             .  4^' 

Feet,  reduced  to  bufhels             .             .             .  467 

Fences,  fcarcity  of  materials,  and  methods  pro- 

pofed  of  making  fences             .           .  194 

need  few  divifions  where  foiling  is  practifcd  4 

the  expenfe  borne  by  neighbours              .  2& 

made  of  Brambles             .             .             .  489 

Fire-places,  improved               .             .             .  299 

Firft  impreffions  on  young  minds             .             .  48  a 

Filh,  cured  in  the  fun  .  .  .  •4^5 

Flax,  its  culture             .             .             .             .  398 

Flaxfeed-jelly,  its  qualities,  and  how  made             .  x6o 

Floors  of  cement             .             .             •             .  5^® 

of  Venetian  cement             .             .             .  282 

Fly,  the  moth  kind,  how  tofecure  wheat  froni  it  241 

Food  for  ftock,  Ihould  be  partly  moift               .  140 

in  foihng,  the  quantity  requifite              .  152 

for  ftock,  fhould  be  proportioned  between 

winter  and  fummer  wants             .             .  4^ 

boiled,  improves  it  two  to  one             .  .62 

the  forts  applied  to  liveftock             .             .  63 

annual  lexpenditure  by  a  horfe          .           .  ibid, 

do.     by  a  hog                .             •              •  »hid. 

to  horfes  in  Afia  and  Egypt,  barley  only  1 34 


INDEX. 

G. 

Gates,  the  beft  fort  for  farms                .               .  470 

Geele,  fattened  In  Languedoc             .             .             .  77 

propofed  to  houfe  and  litter             .             .  66 

Grain-farm,  an  efpecial  defign                .               .  4^ 

rotations  of  crops              .               .              .  17 

do.  do.    with  cosrinued  meadow 

and  Heip.p              .              .  ^6 

culture  or  liveftock,  a  choice             ,           369  to  387 

the  quantity  exported             .             .         372  to  374 

yearly  expended  on  ftock             .               .  63 

at  market,  compared  with  liveftock         .         .  69 

farm  compared  with  grafs  and  ftock  farm         %  ibid. 

Granary,  with  diviiions              .             .             .  83 
Grapes,  a  badfubject  of  cuItIva.tion  for  the  flaple 

of  a  cour.-ry              .              .              .  240 

Gra£s  rotations  of  crops                  ...  3 

requiGte  a  year  for  ftock              .              .           .  63 

crops  in  tables  of  the  courfes             .             .  15 

in  foiling,  ^ded  by  buckwheat  and  maize 

fown  thick  for  the  pur|X)fe              .              .  145 

and  ftock  farm,  fuperior  to  grain          .              •  69 

Green  drefllng,  by  plo^ring  in  green  herbage          .  6,  45 

in  a  fyftem  of  recurring  crops              .  8 

GypTam  manure,   as  experienced  by  a  number 

of  farmers                .               .              344  to  355 

its  llrength,  how  to  try  it               .  356 

H. 

liabitations,  to  build  fecurely           .             .         .  279 

Hams,  their  weight  green  or  cured         .         •          403,  404 

cured  to  the  beft  advantage                .              404,  406 

Haws,  to  promote  their  growing              .              .  198 

Hay^  propofed  from  rye                   ...  6 

kept  ever  to  fupply  grafs  in  drought             .  14^ 


I  N  D  E  X. 

FACE. 

Hay,  from  timothy  and  orchard  grafs,  for  topping 

clover  ftack*,  and  to  mix  layer  oa  layer         .  49 

c[  rye  ...  .  .6 

a  load  .  .         .  i::7 

quantity  per  annum,  for  ftock  .  .  63 

Heat,  how  avoided  in  Sicily         .  .  .  45^ 

difference  indoors  and  out  .  .         .  303 

rofifted  by  draw  and  charcoal  .  306,  309 

Hemp,    culture  and  preparation  for  market  108  to  118 

in  a  rotation  of  various  crops  .  50,  56,  70 

may  grow  long  on  the  fame  ground         .  icS 

compared  with  tobacco  .  .  116 

preparation  of  it  for  linen  .  .  117 

fpin  it  in  a  d;imp  place  .  .  1 1 1 

pull  rather  foon  than  late  .  .  ibid. 

leave  in  water  long,  rather  than  take  it  out 

too  foon  ....         ibid. 

Herrings  cured  and  barreled  .  .  .        4 1 S 

Keflian-fly,  oppofed  by  rolling,  &c.  .  .        5S 

fome  account  of  it  .  .  242; 

Hills,  how  to  plow  them  .  .  .  2  l 

Hirelings  more  profitable  tlian  Haves  .  .         391 

Hog-ciilerns,  how  confirufred  .         .  .  519 

Hogs,  annual  expenfe  of  food  .  .  6^ 

obfervations  on  thera         .  161,  185  to   189 

the  food  that  bed  fattens  them  .  ibid- 

Homeflead,  its  contents  ...  74 

Hops,  of  Famliam,  to  grow  and  cure  .  327 

Horie,  his  aimual  expenfe  of  fcH)d  .  .  63 

the  mod  expenilve  feeders  .  154,   155 

breed  from  ycur  ov%-n  till  you  find  a  better, 

without  regard  to  crcuin^  the  drain  .  25 

Horfchoing  defin;d  .  .  .  21,  31 

Oo 


INDEX, 

Houfe,  fee  talii^'icn,  Sec. 

Hung  beef,  Trell  prepared  .  .  .  405 

Hufbaadmen,  different  in  fyftematlc  applications 

of  labour,  &c.  .  .  .  i 

afhamcd  to  acknowledge  their  igno- 
rance, &c.  ...  48 
in  the  inland  country,  and  on  the 
coafl,    of     different    difpofitions, 
moita              .              .              .           .402 


I. 


Ice,  how  kept                     ....  415 

creams              .....  ibid. 

its  ufe  in  Sicily  and  Italy                .                .  455 

applied  in  making  butter  .  .  '79 

houfcs,  the  principles  on  which  to  conftrudt  them  304 

Idle  farmers              .                .                .                .  154 

IrapoTeriihment  of  ground,  by  what  means              .  156 

Improvements,  too  little  fought  by  hulbandmen         .  2 

in  husbandry,  are  often  introduced  by 

ftrangers  to  the  praclice  of  it  48 
flyly    ftolen   from    the    difcoverer — 

alhamed  to  acknowledge  it         .  ibid. 

Income,  from  grain  and  liveftock             .             .  69 

of  a  farir.,  fiated  on  a  crop              .              .  68 

Infects  injurious              .              .              .              .  241 

Irrigated  lands,  rcTidered  cheap  by  the  field  culture 

of  clover              .             .              .              .              .  31 

K. 

Keeping  cattle  and  fattening  them,  the  difference       141,  15^ 

Kitchens,  cautions  in  building                 .               .  76 

oa  the  lops  or  upper  ftories  of  houfes         .  295 


INDEX. 


L^Tbour,  mllappUed  by  hufbandmen  .  .  i 

hired,  is  cheaper  than  from  flaves         .         '39' 

Laboratory  and  fmoke  hcgife  .  .  .78 

Labourers,  particulars  of  them  .  .  387 

expenfcs  in  England  .         .  .         516 

do.    in  Ireland  .  .  517 

Lambs,  dropping  in  March,  aflbit  them  .  6^ 

Lands,  how  impoverifhed  in  Maryland  .  67 

hovr  reftored  in  Pennlylvania  .  .  ibid. 

improvable  by  plowing  in  clover  and  old 

ftubble,  &c.  .  .  .  ibid. 

Larch,  recommendations  of  the  tree  .  .  428 

the  firft  of  all  trees  and  of  all  wood  .  523 

Leather,  how  made  to  reHft  water  ,  .  488 

Level,  ufed  in  irrigating  groimd  .  .  ^2:^. 

Lime-manure,  the  quantity  and  effeifts  .  •239 

Limeftone,  a  manure  when  powdered  .  .       484 

Linfeed-jelly  its  virtues  and  how  made  .         .  160 

Litter,  fcarcely  wanted  by  beafts  houfed  .  .         56 

very  neceflary  in  yards  .  .         .  126 

of  maize  ftalks,  very  good  .  .  12S 

Liveftock,  the  firft  fubject  of  farms  .  369  to  3S7 

the  crops  applied  in  food  to  them  .  6 1 

ftall  fed  or  foiled  ...  69 

and  grain,  the  difference  at  market  ibid. 

of  tliefe  liveftock  Is  the  beft       369,  387 

quantity  exported  .  .         372  to  374 

difference  in  the  effeifl  between  a  bare 

fufficiency  and  an  abund.ince  .  66 

profits  from  liveftock  .  .  .65 

fee  Jloci 

Load  of  hay  or  ftraw  .  ,  .  127 

Lombardy  poplar,  its  qualities  and  ufcs         .  427,  42S 


INDEX. 

M. 


PAGE. 


Madder,  a  valuable  crop             .             .             .  468 

Maize,  its  culture  Avith  v.'heat,  a  new  method  .          100 

its  feed  improved  ....  462 

how  cultivated  in  Italy  and  France               .  463 

fown  thick. in  brcadcafl,  for  flail  feeding  or 

foiling              ....  ibid, 
greatjy  improves  fattening  cattle  as  ufed  in 

France              ....  ibid. 

its  cultivation  on  Long  Ifland              .  .      ibid, 

as  a  fallow  crop              .              .               .  189 

Maize,  very  fattening                .                .                .  1 89 

bell  of  the  corns                  .             .                .  33 

early  harvefted,  a  new  method             .  .         41 
its  hardinefs  in  culture,  and  advantages  to  it 

from  expofmg  the  roots              .              .  107 
admits  of  the  tops   and  blades  being  early 

cut  or  plucked  off             .              .              .  ibid. 

requires  much  fun             .             .             .  237 

Malt,  of  procuring  or  making  it  .  .324 

Manufavftories,  to  let  in  gradually         .             .  .         309 

^lanure,  from  farm-yards              .              .              .  118 

from  gypfum,  in  much  experience  .          344 

in  Magothy  bay  bean              .              .  46 

flieltered  from  fan              .              .  .             ^^ 

method  of  applying  it              .              .  ibid. 

increafed  and  improved  by  houfmg  flock  ibid. 

in  clays.  Sec.  tried  on  various  foils  .            ^6 

from  top  drefTmg               .               .  5^>  59 

little  and  frequent                  .              .  58 

quantity  from  cattle  in  a  yard                .  6§ 

how  faved  by  Bakewell                .  .             66 

to  be  unceaflngly  applied             .  •           68 


INDEX. 

fAGE. 


Manure,  from  compofls  at  headlands  .  .  454 
from  gypfum  certified  by  many  farmers  344  to  355 
from  powdered  limeftone  and  gypfum, 

by  Chancellor  Livingfton              .         •  484 

how  it  operates              .              .              .  238 

try  various  fubflances  on  various  foils           .  58 

from  turf-dykes              .              .             .  240 

Manurings,  fyftematically  recurring              .              .  9 

Marble  table  for  butter              .              .                .  275 

Marl,  fcarcc — of  trying  what  prefents              .             .  64 

Meadows,  become  cheap  from  field  culture  of  clover  3 1 

for  feven  years,    during  annual  crops  in 

rotation  .  .  .  $c,  56 

Meal,  the  annual  expenditure  by  (lock             .             •  ^3 

Meat,  kept  frefli  a  year              .               .                .  437 

a  method  of  faking  and  curing  in  England         .  461 

method  according  to  Pocock             .             .  404 

MelafTes  to  purify  •  .  .  •  460 
MefTes,  for  labouring  people  .  .  339  ^P  34^ 
Milk,  quantity  and  quality  of  Suffolk,  Bakewell 

and  China  cows               .             .             .  163 

quantity  alone  not  evidence  of  good  cows         .  168 

Milkhoufe             .             .             .             .              •  7  8 

Mills  for  thrafhing  wheat             .             .             .  511 

Morals  of  a  people  injured  by  a  fudden  influx  of 

property,  motto  .  .  402,  532 

Moth-fly  in  wheat             .             .             .             .  241 


N. 


Ncceflaries,  the  beft  prodaft  of  land  .  •         224 

Notes  and  intimations  .  .  *  4^* 


INDEX. 

o. 

PAGE. 

Oats,  unknown  in  Afia  and  Egypt              .              .  134. 

Oil  of  fefamiim  or  benni,  its  qaalities                .  160 

of  caftor,  how  to  make              .              .              .  446 

cake,  a  great  fattener  of  flock              .              .  1 60 

Okra,  its  ciiltiire  and  xifes                  .              .              .  528 

Orchards,  precarious  in  giving  fruit              .              .  74 

to  manure  and  prune             .             .  436 

cultivated  on  improved  principles              .  497 

Orchard-grafs,  its  qualities              .              .          .  12 

the  bell  companion  to  clover            .  13 

the  feed  precarious  in  faving  it : 

gather  it  whilft  yet  greenifh              .  49 

Oxen,  their  expsnfe  and  profit             .             .         .  5 

profitable  when  worked  in  hamefs         .  131,132 


P. 


Painting  on  plaftered  walls  with  linfeed  tea  or 

fpirit  of  turpentine,  inHiead  of  oil              .              .  465 
Palma-chrifti,  two  forts — how  caftor  oil  is  made 

of  the  bluifli  plant              ....  446 

Parmefan  or  Lodian  cheefe           .             .             533^°  53^ 

Paftures,  in  England,  are  made              .              .  142 

in  America,  are  fpontaneous              .  143 

Pafluring  cattle,  advantages  and  difadvantages      142  to  147 

inferior  to  foiling              .              .              121,  144. 

Pauf)€rs,  of  governing  them                      .             .  465 

Peach  trees,  to  preferve              .              .              .  507 

Peas,  the  garden  forts,  for  fallow  crops  .  38,  44 

the  American,  their  qualities              .            .  44 

Pickle  for  meat  and  fifh                 .                 .                404,  414 

Pigeon-houfe,  fize  and  form             •             •             •  79 


I  N  D  E  «. 

r.\cc. 

Pigs,  their  food,  offal  of  dairies             .  .          78,   i88 

Plantations  of  trees              .              .  .              .523 

Plants,  whether  beft  to  tranlplant  or  not  .               4C0 

Plafter  of  Paris,  fee  gypfum 

Plows,  the  importance  of  the  form  of  mould  boards  47 1 

with  two  Ihares               .               .  .                ^jz 

double  mould-boards,  important  .            104,   105 

Plowing,  fee  horfehoing 

fields  yearly  extirpates  weeds  .                  2 1 

in  wheat,  and  harrowing  in  .              ,216 

Pocock's  family  pickle           .  .              .  .                   404 

Pointing,  roofs  and  leaks  in  houfes              .  .            396 

Pokemely,  a  Ruffian  pickle              .  .            .             j.20 

Pompion  diet              .              .              ,  .          ,           341 

Pork,  kept  frefh  a  year             .              .  .                   4^7 

pickle  by  Pocock                  .              .  ,              404 

Poft  and  rails,  deficient  in  fences             .  .               gj 

Potafti  bread             .             .             .  .             .411 

Potatoes,  yield  a  fpirit             .               .  .               321 

planted  in  the  ftep  of  maize  .           .              40 

faving  them  in  the  field              .  .              4^6 

the  crop,  how  fupcrior  to  wheat  .             160 

quantity  expended  by  ftock  .              .          63 

beft  planted  in  June         .  .             .            ji 

Pottages,  a  fattening  food             .             .  .           1S9 

Pottery  and  glazing,  their  defe<fts              .  ,             456 

Poultry  houfe  and  food             .             ,  ,           •         77 

Power  of  horfes  in  drawing              .  .              .          429 

Produtfls  from  grain,  and  from  liveftock  compared        68,  69 

Proviiions,  at  market,  firom  liveftock  .          37^  to  374 

from  grain              .  .              ibid. 

Pruning  orchards,  dire<flions  for  it              .  ,            498 

Pudding  of  potatoes              .              ,  .         .             33c 

Pump,  conveying  water  to  milk,  &c.  .             .         8j 


INDEX. 

R. 

PAGE. 

Rain  water,  the  pureft  to  drink             .               .  481 

Ray-grafs,  worth  trying              .             ,              .  14 

Reaping,  on  beds  ^i  and  7  feet,  equal              .  221 

Rennet  fliins,  how  cured                .                .                421,  453 

liquor  to  make                 .                  .                422,  453 
Reft  of  ground,  promotes  weeds  and  hardnefs  to 

foil             .....  22 
Reft,  in  the  way  of  meadow,  during  changes  of 

other  crops              ....  56 

Rice,  the  forts,  and  the  culture  of  it              .             .  275 
Ridees,  in  wheat,  better  than  broad  flat  lands,  svhere 

the  ground  is  level,  but  inferior  to  beds       .  218 

better  lying  north  and  fouth  than  eaft  and  weft  219 
Roiling  clover  in  the  fpring   hardens  the  ground,  if 

moift  at  the  time             .             .             .  220 

Roofs  of  houfes,  how  pointed               .                 .  369 

platform,  &c.              .             .               .           .  285 

Rota-baga,  time  of  fowing  it  .  .  41,  474 

a  Swedifn  account  of  it                .             .  24 

(lands  the  winters  of  Pennfylvania         .  ibid. 

Rotations  of  crops  defined             ...  2 

recurring  in  orderly  courfe             .             .  7 

in  grain  crops              .              .              .  17 

in  grafs              .              .              .               .  12 

adverfe  to  weeds  and  a  hardnefs  of  ground  2  x 

of  crops  by  Mr.  Ames              .              .  478 

Roots,  fibrous  bind  the  ground              .              .  23 

tap  open  ground              .                .              .  ibid. 

the  produ&s  and  weights  of  them               .  5  2 

Root-vault,  where  placed                ...  83 

Rubbing  pofts,  for  cattle              .              .               .  145 

Ruft,  on  wheat,  checked  by  rye  fowa             .         .  4S6 

Ruta-baga,  fee  Rota-baga 


INDEX. 

PACE. 

Ry^-hay,  propofed,  in  grafs  rotations  .  .  6 

tlie  time  to  cut  it  .  .  .  15 

Rye,  unknown  in  Afia  and  Egypt  .  .  134 


S. 


Salt,  for  family  purpofes              .              .              .  259 

to  ftock  in  artificial  licks  .  ^6,  82,   160,   171 

its  importance  when  freely  given  to  ftock  82,   171 

Salt  provifion,  to  irelben              .              .              .  432 

Salting  and  curing  meat                 .                  ,  437,  461 

Sandy  foil,  its  difpofition  refpesfling  rain  and  dung  229 

Seeds,  whether  neceflary  to  change  thsm              ,  23 

difficult  to  fprout,  how  promoted               .  198 

Seins,  how  preferved             .             .             .  .519 

Servants,  in  lieu  of  flaves             .             .             .  387 

better  than  flaves  to  the  farrner             .  391 

their  wages  and  expenfes  in  England  .        395 

Sefamum-oil,  its  qualities              .              .              .  160 

Shade,  from  rye,  buckwheat,  &c.             .             .  6 

{eejbe/ter 

plants  that  delight  in  it             .                .  236 

Shading  fallow  crops              .              .              .          .  19 

Sheep,  obfervations  on  them      •       .              .  161,172 

their  annual  expenditure  of  food               .  63 

of  foihng  tliem              .              .              .  65,  432 
the  quantity  and  quality  of  food  neceflary 

to  keep  or  fatten  them              .              .  431,  432 

their  houfe  and  yard                .                  .  ^3 

kept  up  to  advantage              .              .  150,  412 

Dilhley  breed               .                .                .  .   ^73 

Cully's  management  of  them                .  174 

management  in  Maryland              .              .  177 

do.            in  Pennfylvania             .  .         184 


INDEX. 

FAOl. 

Shctp,  ihcir  general  food  .  .  .  42 1 

their  ages  to  be  obferved  .  .  183 

Slielter,  is  only  againft  immoderate  exhalation  .  232 

iiscefTary  to  grafs  feeds  .  .  12,  54 

ice  fhade 

Sheltering  crops  .  :  .  6,   18,  45,  50 

Shim,  defcribed  and  how  worked  .  .  ±7 

Shimming,  a  fort  of  horfehoing         .  ,  .29 

Shoes  to  defend  from  water  .  .  .  488 

Silk,  a  bad  article  of  the  hufbandman's  attention       .         244 

Slaves,  their  inferiority  to  farmers  ,  391   to  393 

Sleds,  preferred  in  Yorkihire  .  .  .  400 

Smoke-houfe  and  laboratory  .   ■  .  ,  yg 

Society  of  agriculture,  national  .  ,  356 

Soil,  hardened  and  untilled  .  .  .125 

improved  by  liveftock  ...  42 

impoverilhed  by, grain  crops  .         .         .       ibid. 

Soiling  liveftock  .  -      .  4,   141,   124,   125 

fneep  .  /  .  .  6^,  431 

compared  with  pafturing  .  121,   141,   144 

advantages  and  difad vantages         .  144  to  148 

objections  by  the  indolent  .  .  147 

attendance  requifite  ,  .  148 

quantity  of  food  a  day,  green  and  dry         .         1^3 

the  ground  daily  cut,  and  how  often  repeated       154 

advantages  imputed  to  it  in  Hanover         .  378 

Soups,  in  rural  life  .  .  .  334  to  337 

Sowing-feeds,  the  time  early  or  late  for  keeping  .       539 

Sows  and  pigs,  profitably  kept  by  ofFal  of  a  dairy  135 

Species,  of  changing  them  ...  23 

Spirit,  from  potatoes,  how  produced  .  .321 

Stalls,  for  cattle,  a  Yorkihire  method,  and  Mr.  Bake- 

well's  method  .  .  .139 

Stallfeeding,  fee  fiilifi^  and  liveftock 


Steaming,  an  apparatus  for  potatoes  .  .  82 

Steers,  \inprofitable  ftock  .  .  .  131 

Stercories,  how  to  place  thera  .         .  82 

Sties,  lor  fows  and  pigs  .  .  .  Si 

Stock,  al vays  kept  up  .  .  .  4,151 

adapted  to  a  villa  .  .  •         •         5 

annual  eipenditure  in  keeping  them  .  63 

do.         do.  in  fattening  them  .  ibid- 

do.         do.  in  foiling  them  .  ibiJ. 

{honld  be  numerous  as  there  is  food  in  quantity       130 

the  age  for  difpofing  of  them  .         .  131 

or  grain  which  to  be  preferred  for  culture     369  to  30  7 

fee  lire  ftock 

all  liveftock  thrive  befl  when  houfed  .  150 

Stock  and  graf^  farm  compared  with  a  grain  firm         .        69 
Stone  ware,  its  compoficion  .  .  .458 

Straw,  its  beft  life  is  in  catling  and  feeding  it  as 

achaflF  ...  56,  64,   126 

the  quantity  per  acre  or  crop  of  wheat         .  1 29 

annual  allowance  to  ftock  .  .  63 

a  manure  or  not  .  .  .  240 

Sugar  from  maples  ....  4 

from  melons  ....       C30 

cleanfed  .  .  .  ..  461 

Swamps,  improved  wi;h  willows  .  42*» 

Sweating,  to  fatten  cattle  foon  .  158 

SwiU,  a  food  for  hogs  .  .  .  .1:2 

Syrup,  from  melons  ....  530 

Syfteras  in  crops  and .bufinefs,  fuperior  yet  negle^ed  i,  2 

round  and  complete,  by  Mr.  Young  .  46 

of  recurring  crops  compared  to  the  fpiral 

line  .  .  .  .  S,  56 


INDEX. 


T. 


FACe. 

Tallo\v,  how  improved  .  .  .  ^  419 

Tarragon  plant  and  tr^rragon  vinegar  .  408,  409 

Tares,  fovs-n  in  Maryland  ...  45 

Tethering  horfes  .  .  .  .  154 

Thorns,  to  make  grow  from  haws  .  .  198 

Thrafhing  mills  .  .  .  .  411 

Timber  fcarce  ....  194,  523 

Timothy  grafs,  vrhen  to-fow  it  .  .  .  10 

when  beft  to  cut  it  for  hay  .  .  13 

beft  to  mow  but  cnce  .  .  14 

flicker  die  fowing,  with  buckwheat  54,  59,  70 

Tobacco,  a  crop  engroffing  attention  .  156 

Tongues,  to  pickle  a  la  Pocock  .  .  405 

Top-dreffing  .  .  .  .  •  58 

Trade,  new  fources  that  threaten  lofles,  &c.  .  309 

Treading  foil  clofe  by  beafts  .  .  .125 

floor,  in  the  farm  yard  .  .  f^^ 

out  wheat,  the  method         .         .  202  to   212 

Trees,  that  are  tlie  leaft:  injurious  to  gi-afs  .  4 

to  cultivate  in  plantations  .  .  523 

Trench-plowing,  try  how  far  it  manures  your  foil         .       ^^ 
Turnips,  thin  in  hoeing  them  .  .  .60 

annual  expenditure  on  (lock  .  .63 

they  clean  ground,  fupport  ftock,  and  pre- 
pare for  feeding  fpring  crops  .  433 
method  of  culture,  by  Kent         .           .           ibid, 
importance  of  hoeing  them             .            434,  435 
a  fubltitute,  more  hardy,  rota-baga           .  24 
method  of  faving  them              .              .              435 
'  I/.             diftance  of  the  plants,  late  fowing  to  keep     .       539 
Tumip-fiy,  how  to  avoid              .    *         .              .               448 
Tumip-fiicer,  defciibed              .              •              •                  521 


INDEX. 


V. 


Vault,  for  keeping  roots  .  •  • 

Veals,  to  fell  by  live  -weight 

Vegetation,  obiervations  on  it 

Vetches,  fown  in  Maryland 

Villa,  a  defign  of  ciuplu)  lueut  iuid  Itock  fui  uiic 

Vinegar,  how  made 

Vitriolic  acid,  a  manure 

Untilling  ground,  how 


22 


PAcr. 

83 

402 
223 

45 

4 

407 

23 

,  125 


W. 


Wafh,  a  food  for  cows  .  .  .         • 

for  boards  or  (lone  walls 
Water  purified  to  drink 
Watering  troughs,  care  of  plugging,  6cc. 

ponds  how  to  make 
Weeds,  increafed  by  crops  of  fmall  com 
Wheat,  fown  on  clover 

culture  with  maize,  a  new  way 

treading  it  out 

thick  or  thin  fowlng 

top  drefled  and  rolled 

fowing  on  maize 

the  crop  of  lefs  value  than  potatoes 

various  ways  of  feeding  and  cultivating  it 

on  flat  beds,  better  than  on  ridges 

Macro's  important  experience  in  fowing  it 
on  clover 

injured  by  flies  and  infeds 

fown  on  one  earth,  better  than  often  plowed, 
where  clover  is  plowed  in 


122 

464 

478 

80 

•   417 
28 

93.  93 
100 

203 
26 

58 
•    32 

60 

476 

89,  90 

93 
241,  243 

98 


'  N  D  E  X. 

""  *AGE. 

Wheat,  experiment?  en  v>heat  fown  In  beds  and  ridges  ; 

harrowed  in  and  plowed  in  ;  rolling  wheat ; 

reaping  .     ^        .  .  259,  268 

cut  early,  it'tliraflies  out  beft  by  the  mill  512 

fown  with  rye  mixed  or  bordered  prevents  ruft    487 

its  enemies,  the  moth  and  the  Heffian-fly      .       243 

beft  foviTi-in  clufters  .  .  95  to  97 

average  produftion  per  acre  .  .  qo 

bow  fecured  agalnft  the  moth-fly  ^  .  241 

ViTieel-barrows  having  two  wheels  .  .  81 

T^Tiite-wafhing  preferred  for  country  houfes  .  465 

Willows,  propofed  in  fwamps  «  ,  .         425 

Wine,  not  generally  an  article  of  crop  .         .         244 

Wood,  how  to  feafon  it  .  .  .458 

impenetrable  by  water  .  .  459 


Y. 


Yeaft,  called  Lettfom's  .  .  .  444 

of  potatoes  ....  445 

of  Perfia  ....  ibid. 

Gypfum,  experienced  by  farmers  to  be  a  manure  484 

fails  on  land  rich,  wet,  or  that  is  near 

the  fea  ,  .  .  486,  487 


ERRATUM. 
Page  ^6,  for  bare  earthen  foots — read,  on  bare  paved  Jloors. 


